Methods of Teaching 



CHARTERS 




























W »/S^'-. w ;/w:-"V^ .%<& 









S T ' 



Methods of Teaching 

THEIR BASIS AND STATEMENT 

DEVELOPED FROM A FUNCTIONAL 

STANDPOINT 

REVISED AND ENLARGED 



BY 



W. W. CHARTERS 



PROFESSOR OF THEORY OF TEACHING AND DEAN OF THE 
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI 



CHICAGO 
ROW, PETERSON & COMPANY 






Copyright, 1912 

BY 

W. W. CHAETERS 



©CU328271 



PREFACE 

The point of view from which the problems of teaching 
are discussed in this text is a functional one. It presup- 
poses that all subject-matter has been created and pre- 
served by the race to satisfy needs and solve problems, 
and that in the schools such parts of this subject-matter 
as satisfy the most fundamental needs are taught to pupils. 
But this is not done in indiscriminate order. Rather, in 
the main, any unit of subject-matter is best presented when 
the need for whose satisfaction it is preserved is potentially 
or actually present in the experience of the pupils. 1 i 
accordance with this view the intrinsic function and the 
structure of units of subject-matter become of prime im- 
portance, involving a phase of methods of teaching, to 
which relatively little attention has been paid in pedagogical 
literature. To complete a practical description of this 
conception as applied to teaching it has been found neces- 
sary to discuss the methods of arousing the appropriate 
needs and the conditions under which they are found pres- 
ent, and to investigate the methods pursued by experience 
both in satisfying these needs, to the aid of which subject- 
matter is invoked, and in securing the maximum degree of 
such satisfaction. 

It is hoped that the point of view here developed will 
not be confused with the problem of school discipline con- 
cerning the authority of the teacher. In answer to the 
question, Are pupils expected to study subject-matter if they 
do not feel the need for it? only an affirmative answer can 
be given, and such answer should be given emphatically. 
The points to be remembered are these: Authority is the 
buttress of the school ; but other motives than that of mere 
obedience to authority may and should be used. When 
other motives fail recourse should be had to obedience, to 
the study of subject-matter merely because it is prescribed 
by the school authorities. 

For the philosophical standpoint utilized and applied I 

3 



4 PREFACE 

am indebted to my instructors in the University of Chicago, 
and particularly to Professor John Dewey, and for the 
psychological analogies which have steadied and illuminated 
the application of this standpoint I am under obligation to 
Professor J. R. Angell. For assistance, through criticism 
and suggestion, acknowledgment is made to Dr. J. H. 
Coursault of the University of Missouri, to Dr. I. E. Miller 
of the Milwaukee State Normal School, to Dr. G. M. 
Whipple of Cornell University, to Dr. A. W. Vining of 
Brandon College, to Mr. R. K. Row of Chicago, and to my 
wife. For assistance in developing the standpoint and for 
forbearance while this was under way I am. deeply grateful 
to my former colleagues in the Winona, Minnesota, State 
Normal School. For suggestions from sources too numer- 
ous to acknowledge individually I am indebted to writers 
upon educational problems. W. W. C. 

University of Missouri, June, 1909. 

PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION 

After teaching the old edition of this text since its pub- 
lication three years ago, I have found certain changes advis- 
able. In the former book my interest, being chiefly in the 
problems — need and subject-matter — led me to underem- 
phasize the topics discussed in the latter part of the book. 
This weakness became evident as soon as the text was used 
in class. Hence, in revision an attempt has been made to 
supply a basic text by balancing the various topics and 
giving a fairly complete list of references for class reading. 
The exercises at the end of each chapter are intended pri- 
marily to get the students into the habit of thinking out 
the principles in terms of concrete illustrations. 

For assistance in pointing out weakness and suggesting 
improvement in the text, I wish to thank all the instructors 
who have used it, but particularly Miss Ida M. Densmore 
of the Kalamazoo State Normal School and Dr. C. W. 
Stone of the Farmville State Normal School. 

W. W. C. 

University of Missouri, August, 1912. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter I. The Function of Teaching 9 

Sec. 1. Statement of Function 9 

Sec. 2. The Values of Life 11 

Sec. 3. Appreciation of Values 21 

Sec. 4. Control of Values 22 

Sec. 5. Assistance of Pupils 23 

Chapter II. Subject-Matter 26 

Sec. 1. The Origin of Subject-Matter 26 

Sec. 2. Subject-Matter and Action 30 

Chapter III. Distinctions in the Meaning of Function.... 42 

Sec. 1. Introductory 42 

Sec. 2. Intrinsic and Indirect Functions 43 

Sec. 3. Function for the Author, Teacher, and Pupil 47 

Sec. 4. Subject-Matter as End and as Means 54 

Chapter IV. The Intrinsic Function of Subject-Matter.... 59 

Sec. 1. Subject-Matter of the Race and of the Pupil 59 

Sec. 2. The Language Group 63 

Sec. 3. History yz 

Sec. 4. Geography 74 

Sec. 5. Primary Subj ects yy 

Sec. 6. Other Subj ects 79 

Chapter V. The Structure of Subject-Matter 83 

Chapter VI. Illustrations of Function and Structure. ... 93 

Chapter VII. The High School Course of Study 107 

Sec. 1. Factors in the Selection of Subject-Matter 107 

Sec. 2. Details of Selection !* no 

Sec. 3. Tentative List of Required Subjects 115 

5 



6 CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter VIII. The Teaching of Subject-Matter 119 

Sec. 1. The Problem of Teaching 119 

Sec. 2. The Characteristics of Pupils 121 

Sec. 3. The "Culture Epoch" Theory 136 

Sec. 4. The Teacher's Tools 138 

Chapter IX. Motive 146 

Sec. 1. Interest 146 

Sec. 2. Conditions Giving Rise to Mediate Interest 154 

Chapter X. Motive (Continued) 158 

Sec. 1. Need 158 

Sec. 2. Generic Values 165 

Sec. 3. Specific Values 169 

Chapter IX. Motive (Continued) 173 

Sec. 1. Active and Potential Motives 173 

Sec. 2. Problem as Motive 174 

Sec. 3. The Problem and the Statement of Aim 181 

Chapter XII. Control of Values 185 

Sec. 1. Methods of Control 185 

Sec. 2. Analysis of the Process of Control 187 

Chapter XIII. Psychological and Logical Organization. .. . 208 

Sec. 1. Introductory 208 

Sec. 2. The Daily Lesson 208 

Sec. 3. Specific Subjects 217 

Sec. 4. Growth of Subject-Matter 219 

Chapter XIV. Incidental and Systematic Treatment of 

Subject-Matter .' 224 

Sec. 1. Logically Organized Subject-Matter 224 



Sec. 2 

Sec. 3 

Sec. 4 

Sec. 5 



Psychologized Subject-Matter 225 

Correlation and Concentration 226 

Central Subj ects '. 229 

Incidental Subjects 236 



Chapter XV. Illustrations of Methods of Securing Motives 246 

Sec. 1. Composition 246 

Sec. 2. Reading 253 



CONTENTS 7 

PAGE 

Sec. 3. Writing 255 

Sec. 4. History 256 

Sec. 5. Arithmetic 261 

Sec. 6. Physics 264 

Chapter XVI. Forms of Instruction 266 

Sec. 1. "Telling" 266 

Sec. 2. Developing Subject-Matter 268 

Chapter XVII. Text-Books 278 



Sec. 1 
Sec. 2 
Sec. 3 
Sec. 4 
Sec. s 



Introductory 278 

Problems 279 

Data 282 

Hypotheses 288 

Verification 289 



Chapter XVIII. Questioning 296 



Sec. 1 
Sec. 2 
Sec. 3 
Sec. 4 
Sec. 5 
Sec. 6 



Function of Questioning 296 

Structure of Questions 304 

Standards for Questions 305 

The Socratic Method 307 

Answers 310 

Class Questions and Answers 311 



Chapter XIX. Induction 314 

Sec. 1. Origin of the Inductive Method 314 

Sec. 2. Definition and Analysis of Induction 316 

Sec. 3. Induction a Special Form of Problem 320 

Sec. 4. The Herbartian "Five Formal Steps" 321 

Chapter XX. Deduction ^37 

Sec. 1. Definition and Analysis ^37 

Sec. 2. Deduction a Special Form of Problem and Solu- 
tion 340 

Sec. 3. Types of Deductive Lessons 343 

Sec. 4. Relation of Induction to Deduction 351 

Chapter XXI. The Utilization of Past Experience 355 

Sec. 1. The Old and the New \ . 355 

Sec. 2. Review for Motive 358 

Sec. 3. Review as an Aid in Solution 360 



8 CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Sec. 4. Review for Functional Connection 361 

Sec. 5. Review of the Previous Lesson 362 



Chapter XXII. Methods of Securing Realness 36 



Chapter XXIII. The Use of Subject-Matter 374 

Sec. 1. Subject-Matter as an Instrument 374 

Sec. 2. Application 378 

Sec. 3- Drill 383 

Chapter XXIV. Assignment of Lessons 396 

Chapter XXV. The Lesson Plan 415 

Sec. 1. Form of Lesson Plan 415 

Sec. 2. Examples of Written Form 419 

Sec. 3. The Writing of Lesson Plans 431 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



CHAPTER I 

THE FUNCTION OF TEACHING 

Section i. Statement of Function 

The purpose, or function, of teaching is to assist pupils to 
appreciate and control the values of life. 

This statement differs from that of the McMurrys when 
they say i 1 "One leading aim of instruction in every impor- 
tant study is a mastery, in the full sense, of its general 
truths." In their statement, the "mastery of general truths" 
is the distinguishing characteristic; in ours, the "apprecia- 
tion and control of values." It differs also from Rowe's 
formulation: 2 "In all types of learning it is evidently the 
organization of experiences which is the underlying impor- 
tant element common and essential to all. In the realm of 
knowledge it implies classification, generalization, system, 
or orderly arrangement of ideas ; in the realm of practical 
skill it implies automatic action, appointed times, places and 
even ways of acting — in a word, habit." Here the organ- 
ization of knowledge into systems and of action into habits 
are the distinguishing elements of the standpoint. 

The industrious teacher, reading pedagogical literature 
for pleasure or for profit, chafes a good deal at the differ- 
ences between writers in the same fields, and occasionally 

1 Method of the Recitation, p. 12. 

2 Habit-Formation, p. 7. 

9 



I0 METHODS OF TEACHING 

fretfully inquires about the time when the same thing- will 
always be stated in the same words. Yet there is a definite 
value attached to this difference in terminology. Each 
writer lays emphasis in a different place; each is, perhaps, 
equally right and correspondingly equally wrong. How- 
ever, because each lays emphasis in a certain place, he works 
that part of the field out thoroughly and hands it over 
to investigators as his contribution. 

For instance, in the opening paragraph the McMurrys 

/are quoted as saying that the mastery of general truths is 

/ the aim of education, and just because they made that the 

1 aim they worked out methods corresponding thereto, and 

..gave us the technique of inductive development. This is 

the Herbartian contribution, in part, to American pedagogy. 

Because they took a different aim, they worked out a new 

part of the field. Again, Rowe selects habit-formation 

as the aim of education and he, on his part, works out a 

part of the field that the McMurrys did not develop — 

methods of drill and organization. And now in this text 

•another function is stated. As a consequence, it is hoped 

that other parts of the field — particularly, subject-matter 

and motive — will be developed, while the results secured 

by other writers will be summarized and organized. 

In brief, then, the teacher should welcome the study of 
the subject from different points of view, since each point 
of view develops a new part of the field. 

Because the terminology in which the function of teach- 
ing was stated above is probably unfamiliar to many 
readers, space will be given at once to a brief explanation 
of its meaning, sufficient for an immediate starting point. 
But, since the whole text is merely an analysis of the con- 
cepts involved and implied in the statement given, a sys- 



THE FUNCTION OF TEACHING II 

l 
tematic understanding will not be attained until the book is 
finished and the analysis completed. 

Section 2. The Values of Life 

Values of Life. — The most important term in our defi- 
nition is values of life because all motives for action, as we 
shall see in Chapters IX-XI, are based on values. If an 
orator wishes his hearers to follow his advice, he must 
make them feel that what he advises is worth their while, 
that what he says is true, and that what he asks is good 
for them. If he fails in this, they will not follow him. If a 
salesman desires to sell an article to a customer, he must 
demonstrate that this article will be useful in gaining some- 
thing that the customer wants. Otherwise there will be no 
purchase. If a teacher wishes his pupils to perform an 
assignment, rTernust make them feel that it has some value, 
or it will not be done. 

Range of Values. — The range of human values is as 
broad as life itself. Hopes, aspirations and ideals, joys and 
sorrows, business, family and church, are valuable in dif- 
fering degrees. Avoidance of punishment, approbation of 
teachers and of associates, arithmetic, history, geography, 
games, sleds and toys, may possess charms for the develop- 
ing child. Indeed, whenever an action is observed, some 
value has prompted it, and since kinds of action are multi- 
tudinous, we can infer that values are likewise multi- 
tudinous. 

But while their range is so broad and their number so 
large, values may be grouped incompletely under heads use- 
ful for the purposes of teaching. 

Aims of Education. — It is an interesting fact that 
each of the statements of the aim of education propounded 



12 METHODS OF TEACHING 

since the birth of time and found scattered through the 
writings of men of all ages has some great human valu: 
at its core. To Socrates, the necessity for formulating 
universals (the great principles that would give certainty 
to thought in the midst of the intellectual chaos of middle 
Greek history) was the paramount value of his age, and 
he made this ability to formulate universals the aim of 
education. 

The souls of the members of the early church glowed 
with missionary zeal. To them the moral regeneration of 
the world was the paramount value of life, and they made 
morality the aim of education. When the nations of Europe 
awoke from the intellectual coma of the Dark Ages, and 
"new aspirations for the development of a free person- 
ality denned on both the intellectual and the emotional side 
as well" were re-born, a well-rounded, fully-matured indi- 
viduality seemed the greatest thing in the w T orld, and the 
aim of education was accordingly formulated as the de- 
velopment of this "liberal" individual. Later, when the 
first enthusiasm of this eloquent conception had died, and 
only the classical' husk was left, it was held among the 
"cultured" classes that the superlative value of the times 
was to become acquainted with Greek and Latin, and the 
aim of education was accordingly formulated in those 
terms. 

The increasing value of the "individual" which brought 
on the French Revolution was voiced by Rousseau, who, 
therefore, held that the aim of education is to give the_child 
a chance to develop himself in the direction in which his 
"natural'' instincts, impulses, and tendencies will lead him. 
Today, when the individualistic conception has come to have 
gigantic power in moulding the actions of men, a new value 
is rising to national consciousness — the value expressed in 



THE FUNCTION OF TEACHING 13 

the Golden Rule — social helpfulness, or enlistment in the 
service of society. This value is accordingly formulated 
in the term "social efficiency" as the aim of education. 

Other values have been implied in other aims of educa- 
tion. Piety, knowledge and eloquence, complete living, 
citizenship, the development of mental faculties "trained 
to come to heel by a vigorous will," and earning a liveli- 
hood, are a few of them. Each of these today, somewhere, 
or by somebody, is held to be a value, and all, in varying 
orders of emphasis, are held by everybody as values appre- 
ciated or worthy of appreciation. , 

The Virtues. — From the first awakening of moral as- 
pirations and the first attempts to explain moral conduct, 
men have been picking out those factors of social well- 
being which, when utilized, have been morally helpful, and 
have called them the virtues. But each is a value. In 
fact, society considers some of them to be so valuable that 
it has taken steps to separate from the rest of society those 
men and women who do not practice them, and for the 
violation of some of the more important virtues has taken 
the lives of the transgressors. 

Hyde has a simple though incomplete classification which 
will be of use to teachers. His list is as follows: 1 

Virtue, temperance, neatness, cheerfulness, industry, 
economy, honesty, purity, veracity, prudence, orderliness, 
courage, sensitiveness, simplicity, kindness, love, benevo- 
lence, forgiveness, fidelity, loyalty, patriotism, public spirit, 
conscientiousness, holiness. 

The older texts on school management, with their 
thoroughgoing moral tendencies, classify the school virtues. 
For instance Millar 2 includes in his list regularity, punctu- 

1 Practical Ethics, pp. vi and vii. 

2 Millar, School Management, pp. 81 ff. 



14 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



aliiy, industry, quietness, neatness, obedience, temperance, 
honesty, courtesy, and self-control. 

The virtues, like the instincts, are, in a sense, means of 
conserving or controlling values. Veracity, for instance, 
became a virtue not by chance, but by choice. It was 
found that veracity was, in the main, a good means of 
preserving and furthering those values which were para- 
mount, such as self-preservation and social solidarity. If 
falsehood had conserved these values better, it would now 
be the virtue and veracity the vice. The virtues are, then, 
means to the conservation of values. But because they are 
excellent means of securing these values, they in turn 
become values. 

The Instincts. — The instincts, "preformed methods of 
acting," have been formed because certain values have 
been of tremendous importance and in need of constant care. 
Each of the instincts is a method by which some value is 
controlled. Something very necessary to the welfare of the 
organism has been in danger ; a good method of protecting it 
has been found and has been repeated so often that it has 
become instinctive. For instance, self-preservation (a 
value) may have been endangered; a good method of pre- 
serving the self was found in flight, and this was repeated 
until it has become instinctive in certain animals. Or, to 
conserve life, fighting was also found to be a good method, 
and it, by repetition, became instinctive. 

According to Angell, 1 the instincts in man are as fol- 
lows : Fear, anger, shyness, curiosity, affection, sexual love, 
jealousy and envy, rivalry, sociability, sympathy, modesty 
(?), play, imitation, constructiveness, secretiveness, and 
acquisitiveness. 

As in the case of the virtues, the instincts have been so 

1 Psychology, p. .?4Q. 



THE FUNCTION OF TEACHING 15 

constant and efficient as conservors of elements valuable 
to men, that they have themselves become valuable, and for 
our purposes we may speak of the instincts in both senses — 
both as values and as methods of controlling values. 

If we think of them as values, we see at once that they 
are not only valuable, but that they are probably the most 
powerful of all motives that move man. Curiosity is so 
valuable that if man had not possessed it, he would never 
have explored his surroundings and might have been trapped 
and destroyed. If it were taken from man, one result would 
be that science would die, since curiosity is the strongest 
motive for scientific investigation. Sexual love is at the 
basis of the greatest tragedies of human existence, and 
is the motive for the noblest human endeavors. Sociability 
is so fundamentally valuable that, deprived of contact with 
their fellows, prisoners grow insane in solitary confinement. 
The old school poem voiced a psychological truth when it 
had Sir Alexander Selkirk say on his lonely island : 

"O Solitude, where are the charms 
That sages have seen in thy face? 

Better dwell in the midst of alarms 
Than reign in this horrible place." 

These instincts are all worthy of high regard in spite of 
criticism offered against them. For instance, fear possesses 
value, though to be afraid is often considered to be a crime. 
For if a man feared nothing he might be destroyed by any- 
thing stronger than himself. Fear is considered to be a 
weakness only when it is produced by something that is not 
strong and powerful enough to justify fear. 

Anger is one of the mainsprings of vigorous action. 
Without the capability of anger man is as helpless as a 



l6 METHODS OF TEACHING 

sailing vessel without wind to drive it. Instincts are to be 
discouraged only when uncontrolled and misdirected, and 
all instincts are worthy of high regard so long as they are 
controlled by man, or, if controlling him, so long as they 
guide him toward the goals of self-realization and social 
welfare. 

Complete Living. — Spencer 1 divides values into four 
large classes, as follows: first, self-preservation; second, 
the rearing and disciplining of offspring; third, the main- 
tenance of proper social and political relationships ; and 
fourth, gratification of tastes and feelings. These are 
listed in the order of importance. 

Needs — Values and needs are closely related in two 
ways. In the first place, as we shall show in its proper 
place, needs rise out of values. Food is a value ; its lack 
produces need. Friendship is a value; its lack, likewise, 
produces need. On the other hand, if the ashes of Vesu- 
vius possess no value, the lack of them produces no need. 
In the second place, whatever satisfies or tends to satisfy a 
felt need possesses value. The effort to satisfy human needs 
has produced the greatest masterpieces of literature, the 
greatest institutions of society, and the most effective instru- 
ments of industry. 

Problems. — Problems and needs are, likewise, closely 
related. When we fail to control values, a problem arises — 
the problem of how to gain control. When we fail to con- 
trol things of no value, we pay no attention to the failure, 
and no problem arises. A problem arises, then, only in con- 
nection with values, and what is a problem to one may 
never become a problem to another, because to him the 
whole situation possesses no value. But every value over 

1 Education, D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1909, pp. 13 and 14. 



> 



THE FUNCTION OF TEACHING 



17 



which we do not possess control becomes at one time or 
another the subject of a problem. 

Interest. — Another method of grouping values is found 
in the term "interest." Whatever interests a person pos- 
sesses value for him. Whatever possesses no value for a 
man will not interest him. The object of interest is a value. 
The child, interested in kittens, feels that they possess some 
value; the adult, interested in business, values the business; 
the woman, with an interest in embroidery, feels it to be 
of value. 1 

A Psychological Classification. — A classification of 
values which seems to be both serviceable and complete is 
the following: moral, religious, social, intellectual, aesthetic, 
physical, emotional, and practical. 

According to this classification there are eight great atti- 
tudes toward life, overlapping to a certain extent, but each 
of importance in education. Moral values differ from 
religious values in that the first embraces all those situa- 
tions connected with the concept of right and wrong, while 
the second embraces all those connected with the idea of 
God. The same situation for one may be merely a moral 
situation, for another a religious one. 

By practical values is meant values that occur in our 
everyday, commonplace life, as well as in moments of stress 
and concern. Particular cases of the other seven groups of 
values may be practical, and are in those cases in which 
activity in the plane of ordinary endeavor is put forth. 

Intellectual values are described by the phrase "knowl- 

1 To some readers, it may seem that the term interest, which is 
well known, is satisfactory for all purposes in methods of teaching 
and that the introduction of the term "values" is gratuitous. And 
it would be were it not for the fact that "values" will enable us more 
easily to show the place of need and problems as motives for learn- 
ing, as will be shown in due time. 



l8 METHODS OF TEACHING 

edge for its own sake." These are numberless. Every man 
lias ideas, seeks facts, stores knowledge, as interesting 
things — frequently of little practical value, and seldom lead- 
ing to social or moral action. The scientist is one predomi- 
nantly biased toward intellectual values, The greatest 
weakness of teachers is that in practice they seem for the 
most part to go on the assumption that knowledge is the 
only value worthy of control. We do little in school to 
assist the pupil to control social or aesthetic values ; we 
utilize few situations in which the emotions play a strong 
part ; to us the school and teaching have a predominantly, 
if not exclusively, intellectual function. 

Degrees of Value. — Values differ in degree. The sage 
who said, "Self-preservation is the first law of life," meant 
that to live is the most valuable thing in all experience. 
Patriots, however, who sacrifice their lives in the defense of 
national honor and ideals would, in making love of country 
the dearest principle of action, imply that for them the 
preservation of the nation is more valuable than the preser- 
vation of the life of any individual. 

In common, prosaic, everyday experience, whenever two 
things to be done are present and one is chosen, the choice 
is due to the fact that for some reason or other one seems 
to be of more value than the other. Frequently neither is 
of great value. Both may have trifling worth and would 
be discarded if something of more value offered itself. For 
instance, routine usually has minimal value. We perform 
the tasks of habit without much sense of value in them. 
But the important point is that they possess sonic value, or 
they would not be performed. We sometimes say that what 
we do is valueless, but we must mean that its value is 
trifling, because if it had absolutely no value, it would not 
be done. 



THE FUNCTION OF TEACHING 19 

The degree of one value when compared with other 
values depends upon several factors. First, it may depend 
historically upon the age of the nation. In the sixteenth 
century a knowledge of the classics was much more impor- 
tant than it is in the twentieth century. Today social effi- 
ciency is more highly emphasized than it was one hundred 
years ago. Secondly, it depends upon national factors. In 
the United States intellectual ability is considered nationally 
to have less value than it has in Germany, while financial 
standing is considered much more important. A third fac- 
tor that determines scales of value is individual tempera- 
ment and taste. Certain men by temperament consider 
moral living to be most important, others value business 
success, others intellectual pursuits, still others friendship. 
Some men think an old coin more valuable than a marble 
palace. A mother may think more of the shoe of her 
deceased baby than of a crown of diamonds. A fourth 
factor is the age of the individual. In infancy, play, for 
instance, is more valuable than in maturity, while neat- 
ness, cleanliness, and courtesy are valued less highly. 

Hence, taken all in all, values are multitudinous, com- 
plex and all-pervasive. They enter into every line of en- 
deavor and determine its direction. 

Subjective Values. — The reader may have felt a dis- 
tinction in the foregoing discussion between two senses 
in which the term values has been used. It may have been 
felt that frequently the individual will do things that are 
valueless and will refuse to do things of value. For in- 
stance, the teacher may find a boy wasting his time on 
trifles when he should be doing important things. But 
to the boy the trifles are more valuable than the "impor- 
tant things." 

Values may be subjective, felt by the individual him- 



20 METHODS OF TEACHING 

self, or they may be objective — that is, outside the imme- 
diate experience of the individual. And subjective values 
are the only basis for action, since they are present in the 
individual experience. The boy who is whittling a stick 
when he should be helping his widowed mother earn a 
living, whittles the stick because it is to him at that time 
the more valuable of the two possibilities. He has a dis- 
torted perspective of worth, to be sure, but he is acting 
in line with the principle. In fact, the only way to get 
the boy to help his mother and leave the whittling for some 
other day or for some other boy, is to make him feel that 
the other possibility is more valuable. In other words, it 
is necessary to make the objective value subjective. Per- 
haps time will produce this by its alchemy, perhaps argu- 
ment, perhaps fear of his mother's scolding ; but in any 
case the desire to help must wax and the desire to whittle 
must wane. 

Teaching, when it is seeking for motives for action, 
must, therefore, concern itself with subjective values, with 
felt values, with values as they exist in the experience of 
the individual. It is concerned with objective values, with 
values as society judges them, only when it is seeking for 
direction and final ideals. But the two must not be 
confused. 

Grading Values. — The practical question arises, as to 
which is the most important value and which the next in 
order. Is the social, the moral, the intellectual, or the 
practical first in order, and which is second? This we 
shall not attempt to settle for the reader, because there is 
no standard for judging. The order depends upon na- 
tionality, age, and temperament. And, moreover, the 
function of teaching which we have stated does not re- 
quire us to make any value more important than another. 



THE FUNCTION OF TEACHING 21 

Our problem is a general one — to find methods of helping 
the child to appreciate and control any value or all values 
irrespective of relative importance. It is sufficient for us 
to say that there are values to be controlled and to leave 
the order of preference among the values to the reader. 1 

Section 3. Appreciation of Values 

The purpose of teaching was stated to be to assist 
pupils to appreciate and control the values of life. To 
appreciate means to estimate properly. To appreciate the 
values of life means to estimate properly the values of 
life. This makes apparent at once one function of teach- 
ing in that it is its business to assist the pupils to judge 
values, or, more exactly, it means to assist the pupils to 
value highly the most worthy values and to place less 
value upon those lower in the scale of worth. 

We are well acquainted with appreciation as implied in 
the term ideals. Good ideals are values, objectively con- 
sidered. (Bad ideals may be values subjectively con- 
sidered.) It is a matter of common experience that one 
of the functions of teaching is to build up high ideals in 
children. Literature is said by some to have its chief value 
in giving children such ideals. History and biography 
nourish ideals of patriotism, success, and service. Others 
say that the schools should inculcate ideals of accuracy, 
honesty, and neatness ; and all of this is but another way of 
saying that the business of the school is to assist pupils 
to appreciate the values of life. 

This appreciation may be of two sorts — intellectual and 

1 For arguments concerning the most important aims of modern 
education, see Bagley, Educative Process, pp. 40-65 ; same. Educa- 
tional Values, pp. 107-116; O'Shea, Education as Adjustment, pp. 
60-98; Ruediger, Principles of Education, pp. 102-116. 



22 METHODS OF TEACHTXG 

emotional. A person may know that honesty is a good 
thing, but he may not feel it in the sense that it becomes 
a subjective motive for the practice of honesty. We are 
told that "the devil can quote scripture" — a graphic illus- 
tration of the difference between the two kinds of 
appreciation. 

As we understand it, the business of teaching is to assist 
pupils to appreciate in both senses, to have them know the 
values of life and to have them esteem, prize, and love 
them. 

Section 4. Control of Values 

It is a long day's march from appreciation to control. 
We appreciate the moral life, but it is difficult to gain 
such control of ourselves as to live the life we love. It 
is easy to value business success, but quite another matter 
to control events so as to secure success. It is a well-known 
truism that none of us reach our ideals; that is, we do not 
gain control of the things we set for ourselves as worthy 
of effort. 

It can be stated as a fact of general application that no 
man controls all his values. The range of interests may 
be wide, their intensity high, the most strenuous effort may 
be put forth, but in the end a great gap exists. However, 
men can secure better control if they know how. And herein 
lies the business of teaching — to assist pupils to get con- 
trol of values, to show them how to reach their ideals. 
If the child has a capability for aesthetic enjoyment, he 
should be helped to secure it; if he wishes to be of 
service to society, he should be shown how to be of 
social service; and if he desires to live a spiritual life, 
he should be assisted to gain skill to live it. 

Some methods of control have been worked out by 



THE FUNCTION OF TEACHING 23 

the race and stored in books; others are handed down by 
oral tradition; other methods are in constant practical 
use as tools and instruments. Some the race has not yet 
worked out. 

Section 5. Assistance of Pupils 

The problem of assisting pupils depends for solution upon 
two factors : First, it is necessary to determine as carefully as 
possible (1) the ways in which the child mind acts in se- 
curing control, and (2) the subjective values that are resi- 
dent in children. This is necessary in order to get a start- 
ing point in teaching and to develop methods of presenta- 
tion. For, obviously, the more nearly we ascertain the con- 
tent of the child's mind and his methods of working, the 
less waste will be necessary in teaching. Second, we must 
know what values are most highly appreciated by society 
and what methods of control it has worked out through 
the ages, so that we can interpret and guide the child, thus 
making him efficient by having him adopt values and 
methods of control that the race is already using. 1 

Problems Outlined. — In analyzing the process of teach- 
ing from the point of view described in this chapter, we 
shall discuss four leading topics : 

1. Subject-matter ; i. e., the methods of control that 
the race and the child have worked out. 

2. Motive; the "motors" that generate and direct activ- 
ity along specific and intended lines. 

3. Development; the methods by which the child gets 
control of values and increases or changes his appreciation 
of them. 

4. Use of subject-matter, once control has been de- 
veloped. 

1 Dewey, The Child and the Curriculum, pp. 14-18. 



24 METHODS OF TEACHING 

References for Class Reading 

Bagley, Educational Values, pp. 107-116. 
O'Shea, Education as Adjustment, pp. 60-98. 
Ruediger, Principles of Education, pp. 102-116. 

Exercises 

1. Collect the aims of education as found in the index 
of Monroe's History of Education under the caption "Aims 
of Education." Show that each is a value. Show also that 
some of them were good aims for the age in which they 
were formulated. 

2. What is in your opinion the most important aim 
of education for this generation? State others that arc 
secondary and justify your choice of the most important. 

3. What values do each of the virtues quoted from 
Hyde assist us to control? 

4. What values do each of the instincts quoted from 
Angell assist us to control? 

5. Give five examples of valuable methods of satisfy- 
ing needs ; five of valuable solutions of problems. 

6. Name the five most valuable interests in your own 
experience; in the experience of a twelve-year-old boy 
of your acquaintance ; in the experience of a twelve-year-old 
girl of your acquaintance. 

7. Give three illustrations demonstrating that routine 
possesses sonic felt value, if it is performed at all. 

8. Give five examples showing the distinction between 
subjective values and objective values, and state how you 
might make these objective values subjective. 

9. Give five examples showing the distinction between 
knowing about a value and feeling the value. 



THE FUNCTION OF TEACHING 25 

10. Give five examples of values you appreciate but 
cannot control. 

11. Give five examples of individuals whose lives have 
been dominated by some one value or closely coherent 
group of values. Outline the histories of the lives, noting 
what each did to control his value. 



CHAPTER II 

SUBJECT-MATTER* 

In pedagogical literature no adequate expression of the 
exact place of subject-matter in the teaching process has 
been given. To the writer, the function of teaching stated 
above (the assisting of pupils to appreciate and control the 
values of life), seems to give it a definite and useful place 
in a system of methods of teaching. In endeavoring to 
show this place, the following topics will be discussed : ( I ) 
the origin of subject-matter, (2) a definition of subject- 
matter, and (3) pedagogical applications. 

■■■» 

Section i. Conditions under which Subject- Matter Originates 

New subject-matter is formed when difficulties which 
cannot be handled by subject-matter already formed, are 
met. Or, in other words, it is created in response to some 
need. 

This holds true of the ancient first beginnings of subject- 
matter. For instance, it is commonly held that botany had 
its early beginning in sickness and disease, for whose cure 
the tribal women collected herbs and studied them. The 
science of chemistry sprang from alchemy through the 
desire of men to find a rapid means of changing the baser 
metals into gold. When the Nile swept away the "line 

1 It is suggested that a reader, reading this text for the first time, 
read Chapter 8 and following chapters before reading Chapters 2-7. 
These latter were for logical reasons inserted where they are, but 
the easiest order in which to read them is that just specified. 

26 



SUBJECT-MATTER 27 

fences" of the ancient Egyptians every year, geometry was 
invented to determine the boundaries of sections of land. 
Astronomy in the form of astrology, probably, began in 
an effort to foretell disasters and good fortune. 

School Subjects. — Not only did subject-matter begin 
in ancient times when a need for it was felt, but today 
new subject-matter is created under similar conditions. 
For instance, all school subjects begin in this manner. 
Systems of bookkeeping are originated when business grows 
so large that a systematic record of transactions must be 
kept, or when, if not kept, confusion results. Writing orig- 
inates when people are separated and cannot keep in touch 
with each other, or when one with a poor memory finds 
that something he wished to use has been forgotten. New 
styles of writing are originated when old styles prove in- 
adequate. The reader is undoubtedly able to remember how 
vigorous criticism against the Spencerian system gave rise 
to vertical writing and how later criticism of vertical writ- 
ing gave rise to the semi-slant and other forms. Manual 
training originated in the schools because it was felt by 
some that the motor training of pupils was being neglected, 
and by others that pupils were not receiving a training for 
industrial life. 

Facts. — Facts within subjects originate in like manner. 
As we use a subject we find places in which it does not 
work. This sets us to improving it — that is, it sets us to 
finding new subject-matter. The little child's first sentence 
is a single word — "Daddy," "hat," "hurt." But when the 
mother says "What hurts?" the child says "Finger hurts," 
because the single word "hurt" is inadequate. Thus he re- 
invents the subject and predicate. Again, when the child 
says "Kiss finger" and the mother kisses her own finger, 
the baby says "Kiss baby's finger," and the adjective idea is 



28 METHODS OF TEACHING 

utilized by the child because the failure to use the adjective 
does not bring the coveted satisfaction. Tense forms, case, 
number, comparison of adjectives, all grammatical forms 
with few exceptions were and are differentiated under the 
stimulus of inability to otherwise secure exactness in com- 
munication. 

In all these cases it can be easily seen that some need, or 
problem, some breakdown or difficulty, set men to work 
creating new subject-matters. In other words, if one is not 
satisfied with the methods by which a thing of value is con- 
trolled, a new method is attempted. 

No Dissatisfaction, No Subject-Matter. — On the nega- 
tive side, new subject-matter will not originate if there is 
no dissatisfaction, problem, or need. As long as accounts 
can be kept in one's head, there will be no system of book- 
keeping. If people are not separated they will not write 
to each other. If old styles of writing are satisfactory no 
new style will be invented. If motor training is taken 
care of manual training need not be introduced. If people 
had not grown sick there would have been no study of herbs 
for the purpose of cure. If men had not wanted to make 
money quickly, alchemy might not have been begun. If 
future events had been known, there would have been no 
astrology. 

We might have had botany, chemistry, or astronomy 
originated for other purposes ; but whatever the purpose, 
it would have originated because of some need, problem, or 
difficulty, and if there had been none such, there would have 
been no subject-matter. 

Old and New Subject-Matter. — If we have never ex- 
perienced the need, problem, or difficulty before, we make 
new subject-matter to handle the situation. Every new 
difficulty requires a new way of meeting it; every new 



SUBJECT-MATTER 29 

problem requires a new solution ; and every new need 
requires new methods of satisfaction. The aeroplane is a 
new way of handling a hitherto unsolved problem ; the 
paper clip is a new way of satisfying a need not previously 
satisfied so well ; the Interstate Commerce Commission is a 
modern method of handling difficulties arising from monopo- 
listic avarice. 

If the need, problem, or difficulty is new to us, but has 
been successfully coped with by others, we may accept the 
subject-matter which they have provided, as when to get 
light we turn a switch, to get butter we visit the grocer, or 
to cure a disease we call the doctor. 

If the need, problem, or difficulty has arisen at an earlier 
time in our own experience and has been controlled by us 
before, we use the same subject-matter as on the earlier 
occasion. If we meet it frequently the subject-matter be- 
comes a habit; if the race has handled it from the beginning 
it becomes instinct and reflex. 

But in all these cases the important point is that new 
subject-matter is not created or old subject-matter used 
again except after some need, problem, or difficulty has 
arisen. 

A few examples will make this clear. For instance, in a 
primary cooking lesson there arises a necessity for rather 
definite measurements. Thus a need for arithmetic is felt 
which cannot be satisfied in cooking and is carried over to 
the arithmetic class, where the pupils discover the new 
way of acting. Now, of course, the race had worked out 
an arithmetical system a long time ago, but to these little 
children arithmetic is as novel as if it were an original 
discovery. That the race had already worked it out for 
them is merely a lucky accident. A boy learns local geogra- 
phy by searching for a bee-tree, a bird's nest, or a swim- 



30 METHODS OF TEACHING 

ming-hole. Somebody has told him there is one. He 
wants to find it but has no definite directions. He feels 
the need for such directions and proceeds to get them for 
himself by inquiry, by discovery, or by a combination of 
both. 

It is unfortunate that the typical school of modern times 
designates definitely what subject-matter is to be studied on 
the basis of what will be of use in later life and leaves the 
teacher to his own devices in creating real and often, of 
necessity, fictitious needs for it in the pupils' minds. It 
is to be hoped that the few experiments now being carried 
on, mention of which is made later in the text, will so 
spread in influence that the typical school taught by the 
average teacher will be changed in its point of view and 
begin with the immediate, active and potential needs of the 
children. For the present, however, the individual teacher 
in the typical system has to do his best to apply the prin- 
ciples to the order of things as they are, while hoping, 
by a process of evolution, to bring about a change to the 
other point of view. 

Section 2. Subject- Matter axd Action 

Subject-Matter, Not Books. — Books and subject-mat- 
ter are not synonymous; for the extent of subject-matter 
cannot be compressed into the proportions of a text. So 
vast is it that to catalogue the subject-matter of one five- 
year-old fraction of humanity would consume a five- foot 
shelf of quarto volumes. To record all subject-matter of 
all peoples in books would be as hopeless as to empty the 
ocean with a bowl. This anyone can see for himself by 
recalling that what he writes is but a meager outline of all 
that he has thought of while writing; that he writes sel- 
dom; and that only an infinitesimal fraction of the people 



SUBJECT-MATTER 31 

of the world put upon paper the smallest fraction, of what 
they think, feel, and do. 

A book is written by one who wishes to convey his sub- 
ject-matter to his readers, and thus it is, strictly speaking, 
a set of symbols which has no meaning apart from his 
experience and theirs. It merely describes, relates, or ex- 
plains it, but is subject-matter in no essential sense. Like 
all records, a book is lifeless, inert and useless, except as 
a guide or stimulus to the formation of subject-matter. 

Subject-Matter Is Mental. — To find subject-matter we 
have to look into the experiences of individuals. History 
is contained in the minds of people. Records and monu- 
ments of history are found scattered over the landscape 
and in libraries, but they are not history. They are guides 
for people who see, interpret, and use them to build up 
within themselves images of the events they stand for. 
Botany is mental. A plant by itself apart from human 
beings would not be botany. The contact of human beings 
with plants is absolutely necessary in order that there be 
a science of botany. Geography is also resident within 
individuals. Books on geography are merely aids which 
assist pupils to build up the subject-matter of geography 
inside themselves. Little Jack Horner's experiences live 
only in people. Outside of people, all that we can find are 
some letters and pictures which in themselves are dead, 
the mere material incantations by which the famous pie- 
eater may be brought to life in the mind of every reader. 
Shakespeare's tragedies live in people. The plays of 
Shakespeare can only in the crudest sense be said to be 
found in books. Once upon a time they lived in the 
experience of the author, who put certain signs on paper, 
the records of his feelings, so that other individuals using 
these signs and records might interpret them, and to a 



32 METHODS OF TEACHING 

greater or less degree re-live the experience of the writer, 
re-experience the tragedies and bring them to life again. 

Pedagogical Application. — Books can be seen and their 
information can be made definite, but the content of pupils' 
minds is elusive and shut in behind docile muscular actions. 
Therefore, it is easy for the teacher to know books, but 
hard for him to know pupils. When he teaches geography 
he may mean that he is teaching the text-book. But so 
far as the triangle of text, teacher, and pupil is concerned, 
geography lives only in the teacher and the pupil, and the 
text is a convenient guide for directing the life of geogra- 
phy inside. 

It is a prime essential, therefore, that when pupils are 
taught, this fact be kept always in mind. And therefrom it 
will follow that the teacher must keep his mental eye upon 
the state of the subject-matter in the pupil's mind. He must 
watch it grow and upon the basis of that growth, rather 
than upon the number of pages covered, judge the progress 
of his work. 

A teacher who, before beginning a subject or a topic, 
takes the time to tabulate how much the pupils know and 
feel about it, and how much they can do with it before be- 
ginning to study it, will save time. This was brought home 
to me in an interesting way by a superintendent of wide 
experience and good professional training, who stated that 
when he began his systematic addition work in the lower 
grades, after considerable incidental work he used no ob- 
jects, merely putting on the board simple problems in 
addition, as 

7 6 5 

i 3,4 

He had reverted to the old methods of our forefathers. 



SUBJECT-MATTER 33 

At first thought it seemed that he was a reactionary, but 
on second thought he seems to be progressive, because, as 
, he explained, every eight-year-old boy in the small towns 
of the Middle West knows enough about small numbers 
to do without the objects in using them. Yet, if one did 
not observe pupils he might keep extravagantly inadequate 
ideas about the infantile powerlessness of pupils in school 
and waste time and energy in teaching what the children 
already have. 

On the other hand, a canvass of what the pupils know 
about subjects saves time by showing how little they some- 
times have. This is well brought out by a series of ques- 
tions asked of a class about to begin the study of physical 
geography in the high school. They had previously studied 
elementary geography, but out of 41 pupils answering, 16 
did not have any clear idea of longitude ; 9 did not know 
where water vapor comes from ; 9 did not know which is 
the east side of the map; 21 thought the sun goes on £he 
other side of the earth at night; 19 did not know what is 
meant by the axis of the earth, one stating that it is the 
imaginary frame upon which the earth turns; 10 did not 
know of what coal is made; 13 did not know that thunder 
and lightning occur together, one of these believing that 
"thunder comes before lightning as a warning, for the 
lightning does the harm" ; and 29 knew of no relationship 
between the tides and the moon. 

Time is, therefore, saved and, in addition, as will be 
shown in its proper place, the laws of apperception will be 
obeyed to the benefit of the teaching process by as close and 
careful examination of the state of the .subject in the pupils' 
minds as the difficulties of the problem will permit. 

Ways of Acting. — This subject-matter in people is, in 
the last analysis, a way of acting. Every person is all the 



34 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



time seeking to control values. But in order to control them 
some sort of action is necessary, and this action is subject- 
matter. Bluntly speaking, this means that geography and 
history, arithmetic, literature, art, and physics are ways of 
acting. The following observations will make clear the 
seemingly far-fetched connection between subject-matter 
and action. 

(i) Action includes more than muscular action. It in- 
cludes all phases of experience. Physical activity is one 
form, intellectual activity is another form. Morality and 
religion are, also, activities. Emotion is another form. 
There are, also, aesthetic and social forms of activity. 
Experience and consciousness are essentially forms of 
activity. 

Subject-matter as a way of acting may thus be analyzed 
so as to be called a way of thinking, of feeling, and of 
acting with the body. And this helps to make the idea 
clearer because it is easy to see that geography is a way of 
thinking about the earth's surface. Crossing the Bar is a 
way of feeling and thinking about death. The Ten Com- 
mandments are ways of governing our moral actions. So- 
cial customs are methods of acting toward other people, 
of feeling toward them or of thinking about them. 

(2) Living organisms are constantly endeavoring to ad- 
just themselves to their environment, and to a greater or 
less degree to adjust their environment to meet their needs. 1 
Houses, clothes, cooking, milling, railroads, carpentry, 
writing, matches, and carriages are all methods of adjust- 
ment. In fact, everything done by men, is done in order 
to make adjustment more complete. 

These methods of adjustment constitute subject-matter. 
1 O'Shea, Education as Adjustment, pp. 76-98. 



SUBJECT-MATTER 35 

It consists in the ways of thinking, feeling, and acting that 
are worked out in the attempt to make appropriate adjust- 
ments. In getting control of the place of things man has 
worked out geography; to handle quantity he has worked 
out arithmetic; to control force he has developed physics, 
and to control beauty in his environment he has developed 
art. 

(3) Among animals and infants, control is largely mus- 
cular. But as intellectual development occurs, the child 
works out his controls with increasing assistance from the 
intellect, and adds to his list of primitive values the more 
subtle and refined values of the civilization by which he 
is saturated. Ideas, facts, principles come to his assistance 
and control of values becomes a much more comprehensive 
thing than the earlier muscular control of infancy. 

Children's Meanings. — Yet, up to a relatively late date 
in childhood, ideas are still surcharged with muscular activ- 
ity. This is brought out in an interesting way by the 
following oft-quoted illustration secured from another 
source by Chamberlain. 

A boy ten years of age gave the following definitions, 
which, it will be observed, are nearly all in terms of action : 

Kiss is if you hug and kiss somebody. 

Mast is what holds the sail up top of a ship. 

Milk is something like cream. 

Nail is something to put things together. 

Nut is something with a shell good to eat. 

Open is if the door is not closed. 

Opera is a house where you see men and ladies 
act. 

Pickle is something green .to- eat. 

Quarrel is if you began a little fight. 



36 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Ring is what you wear on your finger. 

Saw is if you see something, after you see it you 
saw it. 

Vain is if you always look in the glass. 1 
When children grow older they work in the field of non- 
muscular activity to a greater extent. But, even so, they 
are still acting, constantly making adjustments and con- 
trolling values. In doing this, they need and use all kinds 
of subject-matter and the important principle to be con- 
stantly utilized is that subject-matter essentially consists in 
ways of acting worked out by some one and utilized by the 
children. To assist in applying and utilizing this principle 
the following illustrations may be of service. 

Illustrations from Literature. — Tennyson's Crossjng the 
Bar is a way of thinking and feeling about death. With 
this may be contrasted, another way as presented to us in 
Browning's Prospice; or, still another, that portrayed by 
Bryant in An Old Man's Funeral. The Lord's Prayer is 
a way of expressing veneration and worship for a loving 
but all powerful God. Now I Lay Me Dozvn to Sleep is 
a method of asking in simple language for the care of 
God through the night. Excelsior is a way of viewing 
unconquerable aspirations. Macbeth is a way of thinking 
and feeling about the progress of unfettered ambition. 
Hamlet is a way of thinking and feeling about a life of 
indecision. Job is a way of thinking and feeling about the 
significance of suffering. Every unit of poetry or prose is 
a way of thinking, feeling, or acting about something. 

Illustrations from Arithmetic. — Multiplication is a 
short way of adding, as division is a short way of sub- 
tracting. Promissory notes are methods or ways of keep- 

1 Chamberlain, The Child: A Study in the Evolution of Man, pp. 
146-7, quoting from Wolff, Boy's Dictionary. 



SUBJECT-MATTER 37 

ing permanent records of loans, and receipts are ways of 
keeping permanent records of commodities delivered. 
Common or decimal fractions are different ways of han- 
dling units smaller than the whole. Multiplication tables 
are ways of making easy the learning of facts of multipli- 
cation. Denominate numbers are ways of handling concrete 
measures. Percentage is a way of handling quantities 
upon a basis of 100, and the decimal system is one more or 
less convenient way of recording quantity. So, also, we 
see that every arithmetical process is a way of acting. 

Illustrations from Sociology. — It may seem that an 
institution is not a way of acting. But to show that it may 
be viewed in that light let us consider some examples. In 
Presbyterianism, for instance, we have without question a 
very definite way of acting. Two hundred and fifty years 
ago the supporters of Presbyterianism thought their re- 
ligious thoughts and lived their religious lives after a 
fashion more or less peculiar to themselves. These thoughts 
and principles of living they put at that time into the form 
of a creed, which is essentially a handy device by which 
to teach Presbyterians how to think and act upon certain 
matters. Again, the republican form of government is one 
way in which a group of people may act in governmental 
matters. The Constitution of the United States was formu- 
lated so that the people might know how they should act in 
certain situations. Courts have been established to inter- 
pret these rules, and to advise individuals when doubt 
arises as to whether they have or have not acted according 
to the rules laid down. 

Illustrations from Psychology. — An instinct is a way 
of acting which is bequeathed to the individual at his birth. 
A habit is a way of acting which the individual has worked 
out for himself and retains. Memory is a way in which 



38 METHODS OF TEACHING 

the intellect acts in situations similar to others previously 
acted upon. Reasoning is a way in which the intellect acts 
in the presence of circumstances requiring a new organiza- 
tion of experience. Emotion is not only a form of mental 
action but also a mode of organic action. 

Pedagogical Applications. — Subject-matter is not 
something to be stored in the mind. It must be turned 
over into action, with the purpose of modifying conduct. 
Useless subject-matter clogs the stream of life, it litters the 
workshops of experience, it is nauseating to pupils, and 
degenerates educational practice. Among the many things 
that may be taught only those should be taught which 
will be of importance in solving the problems and satisfying 
the real needs of pupils. 

To make the point of view of the text more emphatic at 
the outset, a few reiterations of the conditions under which 
subject-matter originates in the minds of pupils must be 
made. Crossing the Bar will be of little use for study till 
pupils have felt the problem underlying it. At an earlier 
time it is so much "emotional Greek." Bryant's The Plant- 
ing of the Apple Tree, Tennyson's The Brook, Alice Cary's 
True J Forth Is In Being, Not Seeming, are all perpetrated 
on nine-year-old boys and girls in a prominent state course 
of study. Much of the miscalled children's poetry is use- 
less to children, for the feelings it expresses are often 
those of an adult, and the only claim it has to the name of 
children's poetry is that it is about children. Field's 
Little Boy Blue is of this sort, and if I were sure of pro- 
tection from violence, I would suggest that The Children's 
Hour and The Village Blacksmith are not suitable for 
ten-year-old girls and boys. 

The multiplication tables should come in only after expert 



SUBJECT-MATTER 39 

use of addition because when the pupils have become ex- 
perts in adding they will appreciate short cuts. Here again 
many schools make a mistake in beginning systematic arith- 
metic in the first grade. It should be left until the begin- 
ning of the fourth grade. Previous to that time it will take 
care of itself, incidentally in connection with the hand work 
of the three first grades. But in the fourth grade the 
pupils are old enough to feel a need for systematic addi- 
tion. And instead of teaching all the operations together 
we should revert to the plan of the old arithmetic in giving 
addition first, to be followed by subtraction or multiplica- 
tion. By this method the pupils will be able to see the pur- 
pose of multiplication in shortening addition. Denominate 
numbers can be introduced through the need for them only 
in occupational work which makes their use necessary. 
And as the schools learn to do more and more of this 
work the teaching of arithmetic will become more and 
more efficient, since the purposes of the operations will be 
made evident. 

The same is true of tools. We learn to use the hammer 
when we need to drive nails. We learn the signs on the 
face of the clock when we feel the need of telling time. 
Children in school can learn much of this, incidentally, if 
when a clock is kept in the room the little folk are told 
to let the teacher know when their class should begin or 
when recess begins or is over. This will form an excellent 
situation in which the Roman numerals, and counting by 
fives to sixty, can be taught under the stimulus of a strong 
motive. An inkstand is made, purchased or acquired by 
children when they find that their fingers get dirty as the 
pen runs up and down the ink-bottle neck, or when some 
other disability occurs. A habit is not broken until it is 



4 o METHODS OF TEACHING 

found to be unsatisfactory. A habit is formed when the 
need for an action occurs again and again. Children reason 
when habit will not handle a case. 

In every case "new" subject-matter is taken on normally 
by the child when he feels a need for it. To teach it when 
the specific need for it is not felt may produce some good, 
but is highly wasteful and inefficient. 

Exercises 

i. State in a general way the origin of printing, of 
fly-paper, the school, Tungsten electric light bulbs, drilled 
wells, anti-toxins, furnaces for houses, concrete sidewalks, 
rebating by railroads, mail order houses, refrigerators. 

2. Make a list of ten kitchen utensils and state what 
need they satisfy. State what would be the difficulties in 
kitchen work if these were not used. 

3. Give ten illustrations showing that when people feel 
no dissatisfaction with old things they will not take on 
innovations. 

4. What is the difference between the conservative and 
the progressive type of mind? 

5. Is it possible for any two people to have exactly the 
same geography subject-matter? Why? 

6. Take a child of six years of age who has not yet 
entered school and try to catalogue all he knows about 
arithmetic. Test his knowledge of counting ; give con- 
crete problems to find how much he can add and subtract, 
multiply and divide, and what he knows of positions and 
denominate numbers. 

7. Work out in class a series of tests to determine what 
a class beginning algebra can do with the arithmetical 
processes involved in the subject. Test for speed and 
accuracy, for drill work and thinking. 



SUBJECT-MATTER 



41 



8. Work out in class tests for determining how much 
an elementary school class beginning the systematic study 
of American or English history for the first time knows 
about the chief characters in the subject. Find out in this 
connection what of this has been taken up as a part of the 
school course in the earlier grades. 

9. Show that the following are ways of thinking, feel- 
ing, and physical action : Politeness, religion, the apprecia- 
tion of a beautiful picture or melody, love for one's mother, 
meeting a friend in a strange city, Latin verbs. 



CHAPTER III 

DISTINCTIONS IN THE MEANING OF FUNCTION 

Section i. Introductory 

The function of subject-matter has been implied in the 
discussion of the first and second sections of the foregoing 
chapter. Subject-matter originates when some need, prob- 
lem, dissatisfaction or difficulty occurs. It is a way of 
acting in the attempt to satisfy needs, solve problems, re- 
move dissatisfactions and overcome difficulties. Its func- 
tion, then, is to solve problems, satisfy needs and overcome 
difficulties. Or, in terms of the function of teaching, we 
may say that its function is to give us appreciation and 
control of values. For, when we fail to control values, a 
problem or need arises, and subject-matter, by solving the 
problem or satisfying the need, gives us the desired control. 

However, text-books on the teaching of subjects do not 
always apply this principle with clear-cut definiteness. For, 
as we shall see, much of present teaching is dominated by 
the principle of formal discipline, and little attention is 
paid directly to the specific problems and needs which each 
unit of subject-matter is supposed to control. 

Certain distinctions will be made in the current inexact 
use of the conception of function. For this purpose two 
typical examples will be taken from current texts wherein 
the function of subject-matter is discussed under the term 
"value of subject-matter." Bourne in his text-book on 

42 



DISTINCTIONS IN MEANING OF FUNCTION 43 

The Teaching of History 1 gives the following as the values 
or function of history: 

1. It interprets the world to the child. 

2. It can make a direct appeal to interests which the pupil 

already possesses. 

3. It has a moral value. 

4. It should help to produce an enlightened patriotism. 

5. It develops a love of truth, judgment, imagination and 

historical-mindedness. 

6. It brings added pleasure within the reach of the pupil — 

pleasure in the study of history as history. 
Smith, in The Teaching of Chemistry and Physics, gives 
the following as reasons for studying science : 

1. It trains in observation, comparison and induction, in 

imagination, and in self-elimination. 

2. Its information possesses value. 

Section 2. Intrinsic and Indirect Functions 

Subject-matter is used by the race and by the school. 
Presumably it would be used by the people whether there 
were schools or not; for schools are of recent develop- 
ment and subject-matter has been in use since the beginning. 
The school uses the methods the race has worked out for 
solving its problems, but, in addition, it sees in the operations 
of education an opportunity for controlling, by the use of 
subject-matter, a number of problems that the race does 
not have in mind. As Smith says, science "trains in 
observation, comparison and induction, in imagination, and 
in self-elimination." But, obviously, science was not 
created and is not used in racial economy outside of 
school — is not, in short, studied by scientists — for any such 

1 Pp. 77-92. 

2 Smith & Hall, The Teaching of Chemistry and Physics, pp. 9-15- 



44 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



purpose. Xo scientist will spend years on his subject in 
order to train his imagination, or his powers of induction 
and comparison. He has something more vital to occupy 
his attention — the solution of certain problems of the 
science. As a result of his study he may indirectly secure 
training in these powers; but his mind is on his problems. 

Subject-matter has both a primitive and a modern func- 
tion. In other words, it may have been created for one 
purpose and be now used for another purpose. Botany, 
chemistry, astronomy, geometry, are a few examples of 
subjects whose function has changed between primitive and 
modern times. But in the main the function of subject- 
matter has remained the same, the chief differences being 
those of detail. For school purposes the modern function 
is the important one, and the primitive function is chiefly 
of historical value. Teachers are concerned with teaching 
children the uses made of subject-matter by the generation 
in which they are being educated. 

The Intrinsic Function of Subject-Matter. — These two 
ideas are expressed by the term "intrinsic function of 
subject-matter," which may be defined as the function which 
subject-matter serves in racial economy without respect to 
the purposes of the school. As illustrations of this intrinsic 
function, the discussions in the preceding chapter are to 
the point, and further illustrations may be found through- 
out the succeeding chapters wherever function is implied or 
discussed. 

In the lists of values given by Smith for science, the 
second — that of affording information of value — is a 
statement of the intrinsic function, though a very indefinite 
and useless one, since it does not define the information 
that science gives, the function stated holding equally for 



DISTINCTIONS IN MEANING OF FUNCTION 45 

any subject, since it is presumed that all subjects provide 
information of value. 

In Bourne's list, the sixth — that of providing pleasure 
in the study of history as history, or the first — that of 
interpreting the world to the child, are probably the in- 
trinsic functions from his point of view, though by some 
writers objections are made to the second conception of 
the function of history. As a matter of fact, neither of 
the writers has stated the specific functions of his sub- 
ject with sufficient clearness to differentiate it from others. 

Intrinsic Function, Specific. — In this connection it is 
well to emphasize a law, subject to few exceptions, that 
each unit of subject-matter has an intrinsic function differ- 
ing from that of every other unit. This depends upon the 
principle of economy of effort, from which it follows that 
if one way of satisfying the need has been found to work 
with perfect satisfaction, people do not search for other 
ways. Sometimes, when one method is not perfectly satis- 
factory, another method, an improvement, may be invented. 
Again, it happens occasionally that different races and 
different persons widely separated work out different 
methods of satisfying the same needs, and, occasionally, 
both of these are handed down to posterity side by side. 
For instance, the Romans used one sort of numeral, the 
Arabs another, and the Anglo-Saxons have inherited both. 
But for the most part each unit has a different function. 
And, without exception, this holds true for the great 
divisions of subject-matter such as are taught in school. 
History solves certain problems in a certain way. Physics 
solves certain problems in its own way. Language solves 
certain problems in ways peculiar to itself. Wherefore, it 
is the business of teaching to determine what is the specific 



4 6 .METHODS OF TEACHING 

intrinsic purpose of each unit used in the educative process. 

The Indirect Function of Subject-Matter. — When we 
consider the place of subject-matter in relation to the educa- 
tion of pupils,- certain new and confusing functions of 
subject-matter develop. Ask a group of teachers about 
the value of algebra to high school boys, and they will 
tell you that it develops exactness, trains the logical powers, 
provides a good discipline, and prepares students for uni- 
versity work. This answer is more or less correct, for 
algebra does possess all these values. But none of them 
is the intrinsic function of algebra, since algebra cannot 
conceivably have been created, nor is it now used by the 
race outside of school, for any such purpose. Its intrinsic 
function is something different, and will be discussed in its 
proper place. 

The values which Bourne and Smith give for history 
and science, and the values of algebra just stated, are actual 
and forceful. But the important fact to be remembered 
about them is that they are by-products which are secured 
while the intrinsic function is being fulfilled. When pupils 
work out the intrinsic problems of algebra, it is found 
that they grow in logical power, and are getting ready for 
college. When pupils are solving the problems of science, 
at the same time without thinking much about it, they grow 
in power of judgment, comparison, induction, and so forth. 
The problems of the subject are in the focus of attention, 
and after attending for a long time, we find, when we take 
stock, that other values have been constantly accruing. 

These values which accrue as by-products while the in- 
trinsic function is being operated may be called "indirect 
functions" of subject-matter. 

Unfortunately for the pupils, teachers confuse these two 
sets of functions, the intrinsic and the indirect, when they 



DISTINCTIONS IN MEANING OF FUNCTION 47 

think about the value of the subjects taught. It is unfor- 
tunate because pupils frequently do not care much about 
logical training and preparation for life, for duty and neat- 
ness. Because the studies possess little subjective value, 
the teacher encounters a world of difficulty in getting chil- 
dren interested in them. This would be obviated if each 
unit of subject-matter were tested out by the teacher to 
find its intrinsic function and the need it satisfies, and if 
an effort were made to correlate it with the appropriate 
need found in the pupil's experience. 

Classes of Indirect Functions. — Of these indirect func- 
tions there are at least three. 1 First, the disciplinary 
function, the training of the mental powers, such as 
memory, imagination, reasoning, habits of neatness, etc. 
From this function, much of the basis for its claim to rec- 
ognition has been removed by recent investigations into 
the facts regarding formal discipline. Second, the prepar- 
atory functions which belong to certain subjects. For in- 
stance, algebra, while concerned intrinsically with other 
matters, has an indirect advantage, in that it is a prepara- 
tion for higher mathematics. The third class includes those 
decorative functions which consist in a mere acquaintance 
with certain subjects. A knowledge of historical names 
and events, a reasonable ability to speak correct English, 
some acquaintance with literary characters, all have a value 
which is evident in a negative way at least, in the social 
criticism to which one not possessing them is exposed. 

Section 3. Function for the Author, Teacher and Pupil 

These distinctions may be approached from another point 
of view. We may look upon any unit of subject-matter 
from three standpoints : 

1 Bagley, Educative Process, pp. 230-2. 



48 METHODS OF TEACHING 

First, we may consider the problem which the author 
wished to solve when he wrote. For instance, Longfellow 
tells us that his purpose in writing Excelsior was to "display 
in a series of pictures the life of a man of genius, resisting 
all temptations, laying aside all fears, heedless of all warn- 
ings, and pressing right on to accomplish his purpose." 1 
This we may call the intrinsic function the author intended 
the poem to serve. 

Second, the function of the poem from the standpoint of 
the teacher should, of course, include the intrinsic function 
which the author had in mind. But, in addition, the teacher 
may have other purposes which he intends it to serve. For 
instance, he may have in his classes some ambitionless boys 
upon whom he wishes it to act as a spur. Or, he may wish 
to use it as a means of giving his pupils a training in literary 
interpretation. Now, these are the indirect values that 
flow from a study of the poem and may not have been 
thought of by the author at all. In this case, certainly 
Longfellow did not state that he intended the poem to be 
a spur to anybody, nor to give a training in literary inter- 
pretation. He says specifically that his purpose was to 
''display the life of a man of genius," not to present a 
moral or critical treatise. Hence, we see that the teacher's 
view of the function must include the author's, but may 
include many other functions besides. 

Third, the function of the subject-matter may be con- 
sidered from the student's point of view. When we con- 
sider what he is consciously working for, we find at once 
that he may not see as the function of the unit all those 
purposes which the teacher expects it to serve in his educa- 
tion. For instance, he may not be aware of the fact that 

1 Longfellow's Poetical Works, Vol. i, p. 79 (Houghton, Mifflin & 
Co., 1892 edition). 



DISTINCTIONS IN MEANING OF FUNCTION 



49 



the teacher guilefully presents Excelsior in the hope that it 
will spur him on to action, and he may not know that the 
teacher intends the study of the poem to give him greater 
powers of interpretation. Of course, on the other hand, 
he may be conscious of the teacher's intention, and he may 
consciously strive for this greater power which the teacher 
wishes him to have. But the point is that to the student 
the purpose of the poem need not be, and usually is not, 
as broad as it is to the teacher. 

When we consider the relation of the pupil's view of the 
function to that of the author, two facts are in evidence. 
In the first place, the pupil's view may not be the same as 
that of the author. For instance, he may not see in the 
poem under discussion that there is "displayed the life of 
a man of genius." The poem may be for him only the 
adventures of a very strange sort of boy. He may not be 
able to look behind the story to find the meaning which 
the author intended. But, in the second place (to lay down 
a principle which, while allowing for numerous exceptions, 
is generally applicable), the function of any unit as the 
author intended it and as the pupil uses it should be as 
nearly as possible identical. For, if each unit is a tool 
constructed for a specific purpose, then the pupil will, as 
a general thing, get the most good from using it for that 
specific purpose. A razor will usually do its best work 
when it is used as an instrument for shaving; the tragedy 
of Macbeth will exert its influence to the fullest degree 
when the function it serves in the life of the reader is that 
for which Shakespeare created it. 

The teacher's, the author's, and the pupil's views of the 
function of subject-matter may be compared and contrasted 
as follows : The teacher's idea of the purpose of a unit 
must include both the author's and the pupil's, whether 



5° 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



these latter agree or not. It may include also certain other 
indirect functions of which neither the pupil nor the author 
is conscious. The author's and the pupil's views of the 
function are in the main identical ; for in both the intrinsic 
function is uppermost. Where a discrepancy between them 
exists, either the author's or the pupil's point of view may 
determine for the teacher what is the intrinsic function, 
and which shall do so depends upon circumstances. If we 
are anxious to find out what the author w r as trying to say, 
then his purpose is the intrinsic function; but if we are 
looking for something to adopt and utilize in solving some 
problem of the pupil, the function of the author becomes 
secondary in importance, and the pupil's view becomes the 
intrinsic function. 

Advantages of These Distinctions. — First, they make 
possible a separate disposition of the functions which subject- 
matter serves. For instance, the teacher should, in begin- 
ning to teach any subject to a class, consider all the values 
that may be controlled through a study of the subject — 
such things as thoroughness, honesty, neatness, and disci- 
pline of memory and imagination should be considered, and 
those selected which are most relevant in the particular 
conditions in which he finds himself. Then, from day to 
day, as each unit of subject-matter is taught, such of these 
as need special attention should be noted. In addition to 
this, the specific intrinsic function of each unit should be 
determined. But the indirect purposes should form the 
background of the stage. The specific intrinsic function 
should be in the foreground of the stage, the thing upon 
which the teacher attempts to center the conscious efforts of 
the children. 

Second, if these indirect results are by-products, it is 



DISTINCTIONS IN MEANING OF FUNCTION 



51 



evident that the attention of the pupils should, for the 
major part of the time, be directed upon the intrinsic func- 
tions of subject-matter. Most attention is given by pupils 
in arithmetic to measuring quantities, which is the intrinsic 
purpose of arithmetic, and less conscious attention is given 
to training powers of accuracy. More of the pupil's atten- 
tion will be given to communicating things of value in 
language, and less to the written forms. In history, the 
greater part of the pupil's attention should be placed upon 
the solving of the problems of the race in continuous series 
from their ancient to their modern forms, while a smaller 
amount should be placed upon the training of memory, 
imagination, and so forth. 

Third, the indirect functions of subject-matter may, as 
we saw in Chapter II, serve as aids in the solving of our 
conscious problems. For instance, no process in arithmetic 
will really fulfill its intrinsic function adequately unless 
accuracy is used. Hence, accuracy is not only a by-product ; 
it is also an aid. It is a by-product which is so closely related 
to the central process that the central process cannot get 
along without it. This is true in the case of most of the 
indirect values. 

By virtue of this close relationship we are able to state 
the conditions under which the indirect values should be 
given a place in the focus of attention of the pupils — viz., 
when the pupils' failure to adequately carry out the intrin- 
sic function of the subject-matter is imminent or has oc- 
curred. For instance, when it seems likely that they will 
not be able to get the correct result in measuring, or when 
it is already evident that they cannot, because of inaccu- 
racy, then accuracy should be brought to the focus of 
attention for the time being. That is to say, attention 



52 METHODS OF TEACHING 

should be paid to the indirect functions of subject-matter 
when the direct ones have broken down or are on the verge 
of doing so. 

Fourth, these distinctions enable us to draw a clear line 
of demarcation between the needs that children feel and 
the needs which the teacher feels that they have. It is one 
thing for the teacher to feel that a boy needs punishment; 
it is a quite different thing for the boy to feel that he 
needs it. It is one thing for the teacher to feel that the 
pupil needs history in order to make him a good citizen; 
it is quite another thing for the pupil to feel that he has 
this need. Yet, no matter what purpose the teacher has in 
view, the function which the subject-matter will perform 
in the w^ork of the school is dependent also upon how the 
pupil feels about it. 

Of the two, the child's conscious need must be the start- 
ing point of the school process. If the teacher is to have 
the child's estimate of his own needs become identical with 
the teacher's estimate of them — and this latter, in the 
main, makes for the greater social efficiency — he must 
develop those needs which the child does feel until they 
grow into the form of those w r hich the teacher, as the 
wiser individual, feels and appreciates. 

Fifth, we see, also, that, on the whole, those units of 
subject-matter of which the child cannot appreciate the 
intrinsic function as judged from the author's standpoint, 
ought not to be forced upon the pupil before the relevant 
needs are present. Why give him subject-matter for which 
he has no apparent use? It may abide for a time in 
memory as so much foreign material, seldom to be assimi- 
lated, probably soon to be lost. 

Sixth, these distinctions further lead us to see the futility 
of trying to follow a text-book slavishly. The author may 



DISTINCTIONS IN MEANING OF FUNCTION 



S3 



not have had the problems of any real pupils in mind, or he 
may have built it for his own pupils, from whom other 
pupils may differ. And, again, different classes which the 
same author may teach have different needs and problems 
arising in a different order from year to year, so that he 
himself, if he is a good teacher, cannot slavishly follow his 
own text. Hence, if we are to follow the conscious needs 
of the children, and thus introduce subject-matter whose 
intrinsic function is to satisfy felt needs, we must follow 
the lead of the pupils and not that of the order of the 
text-book, unless the two run side by side. 

Finally, these distinctions require the teacher to scruti- 
nize every unit of subject-matter to see what is its intrinsic 
specific function; for otherwise it may not be usable in 
the situation for which it was intended. It is not sufficient 
to consider merely that a shovel and a fork both develop 
muscle. Of much more importance is it to know, in addi- 
tion, that for which each of these instruments is especially 
useful. If only muscular training were involved,, there 
would be no harm in pitching hay with the shovel. Perhaps 
such exercise would be strongly conducive to muscular 
development. And yet it would not be very sensible in 
practical life. 

The teacher should realize the folly of saying, for 
example, that for his purpose in class the function of 
Hamlet is to train the imagination, or to create a love for 
good literature. In that case, the purpose of Hamlet is 
not different from that of a hundred other poems, But 
when we say that the specific intrinsic function of the 
play is "to show the dissolution of an indecisive character," 
then Hamlet stands by itself distinct from all other poems. 
The student turns to it for enlightenment concerning the 
question of indecision of character. That should be the 



54 METHODS OF TEACHING 

central theme of the recitation, the one upon elucidation of 
which the most of the attention should be centered. 

Section 4. Subject-Matter as End and as Means 

Efforts to clarify the meaning of function meet with 
difficulties of another sort. 

The question, Why study algebra, history or physics? 
is answered by some by saying that each is worth while 
for its own sake. The scientist thinks the problems of his 
subject are worth solving as scientific facts, worth as much 
in themselves as are any other problems. The historian 
studies history to know history, and the mathematician 
takes delight in an abstruse problem in his own field, just 
for the sake of solving it. This is called the attitude of 
the specialist, and to such an one the function of his subject 
is to solve the problems of that subject. 

Others claim that the function of all subjects, the reason 
for their existing, is to solve the problems and satisfy the 
needs of practical men. No subject, say they, should be 
studied except as it is useful in promoting the sum total 
of the efficiency and happiness of the average man. They 
claim that mathematics can be justified only if it can be 
shown that from the results of the work of specialists 
practical good accrues. If the chemist in his laboratory 
discovers truths which will combat disease and promote the 
common good, he is justified in being a specialist. If the 
philosopher can organize knowledge in such a way that 
the man in the street is helped to efficiency or happiness, he 
justifies his effort. 

Where the theoretical merits of the controversy between 
the two camps lie, need not concern us here, save in this 
particular, that pupils of the grades and of the high school 
have not yet developed, nor are they interested in the spe- 



DISTINCTION IN MEANING OF FUNCTION 55 

cialist's point of view to any great degree. They work best 
when in their own lives they can see the use of the units 
taught. And, contrariwise, teachers have the specialist's 
attitude more strongly than has the average man. So in 
the school room there is found a greater gulf than in the 
world at large. Hence, teachers have to be especially care- 
ful to make every reasonable attempt to teach subject-matter 
as a means to controlling values outside the subject taught, 
rather than as material which is acquired because of its own 
worth for and by itself. 

A few examples will make this clearer. For instance, 
why study history? Two types of answers may be given: 

(1) Because it is worth while for its own sake; (2) be- 
cause it assists in the understanding of modern institutions. 
Again, why study subjunctives in Latin? Again two types 
of answer may be given: (1) Because they should be 
known; (2) because they will help in understanding sub- 
junctives in English. Or, again, why learn to spell? And 
the answers are : ( 1 ) Because one should be able to spell ; 

(2) because it will be necessary in order to convey ideas 
correctly. 

In the first term of each pair of answers we see the 
specialist point of view maintaining that the thing is worth 
while for its own sake. In the second, we have an attempt 
to show some other reason for its study. History may not 
be of value to the pupil, modern institutions may; Latin 
subjunctives may not be of value, English subjunctives 
possibly might. Mere ability to spell may be a bore, while 
writing letters correctly may mean much to pupils. 

Of course, if these second terms are of no more value 
than the first terms; if, for instance, pupils have no more 
interest in understanding modern institutions than in his- 
tory, no more interest in English than in Latin subjunctives, 



5 6 METHODS OF TEACHING 

and hold the conveying of ideas exactly to be of little value, 
there will be no more motive in the one case than in the 
other. But an effort to discover the second, instrumental, 
type of function gives a second chance to secure a motive 
for study, gives another opportunity to secure a useful life 
for the facts secured by the pupils. This is more than an 
even chance, and is well worth taking. 

Summary. — Returning to our two illustrations in the 
introductory section of this chapter, we are now able to 
assign differing values and places to the members of the 
lists there tabulated. In the case of science, the second 
function listed is the intrinsic function. Whether this in- 
formation should be studied for its own sake, or because it 
may be an instrument in getting control of other values, 
the author does not state. The first function of science 
stated is indirect and disciplinary. 

In the case of history, the first and sixth functions are 
intrinsic. The second probably illustrates the fact that his- 
tory is an instrument in the fulfillment of interests, and 
thus considers the subject-matter as a means. The third, 
fourth, and fifth are indirect functions. These come mainly 
as by-products ; only occasionally are they brought to the 
focus of attention. The sixth views history as an end in 
itself, worthy of study because of the pleasure history as 
history gives. 

Exercises 

i. What are the intrinsic specific functions of a lead 
pencil, a fountain pen, an electric light, a book-case, a chair, 
a rocking chair, a Morris chair, a hammock, a vacuum 
cleaner, a match, a fireless cooker? 

2, What are the intrinsic functions of nouns, adjectives, 
adverbs, tense, voice, mood, comparison of adjectives, per- 



DISTINCTIONS IN MEANING OF FUNCTION 57 

son and number, as forms of the sentence, the function of 
all grammatical forms being stated as that of making oral 
communication more exact? 

3. What may be the intrinsic and indirect functions of 
walking, haymaking, cooking, clerking in a store, using a 
telephone, playing baseball, reading good literature, selling 
real estate? 

4. What indirect values may flow from a study of 
physical geography, botany, spelling, reading, arithmetic, 
physics? (If available, read pedagogical articles upon the 
values of these subjects.) 

5. Give ten examples of how adults may use a thing 
for one purpose when it is intended to be used for another 
purpose. 

6. Give ten instances in which pupils have not seen the 
author's purpose in connection with certain selections or 
topics, but have used them for a quite different purpose. 

7. Give ten instances in which you, either in the school 
room or among your friends outside, have had pupils or 
friends do things when the reason they had for doing them 
was not the reason you had in mind for having them do 
them. Did it ever work better for them not to know your 
purpose, even when your purpose was to benefit them? 
Explain. 

8. Give five instances of where, by using things for 
purposes for which they were not intended, disastrous results 
followed. Give a like number in which the use was satis- 
factory. 

9. If a teacher follows the lead of each pupil's needs, 
what will be the result in a class of thirty? What will you 
do about it? 

10. Give ten cases where you have felt that people 
needed certain things but they themselves did not feel the 



58 METHODS OF TEACHING 

need. In any of these cases, when they did, or secured 
what you felt they needed, how was it brought about? 

11. If a scientist tried to investigate only the things that 
would be of immediate practical use, what effect would it 
have on his science? 

12. If a teacher does not care whether the pupils see 
the use of anything taught, what effect has it on him? 
On the pupils? 



CHAPTER IV 

THE INTRINSIC FUNCTION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 

Section i. Subject-Matter of the Race and of the Pupil 

Subject-matter is found in two places — in the experience 
of the pupil and in the active experiential life of the race. 
The pupil possesses a body of subject-matter for the most 
part lacking in systematic organization; but some of it 
is always vigorous, and it frequently is well organized. It 
will be shown later that true learning consists in progres- 
sively utilizing this experience in gaining new subject- 
matter or in organizing that which has been hitherto un- 
systematically collected by the pupil. The race, also, has 
worked out a vast body of subject-matter, in part unsys- 
tematic, but to a greater extent organized into coherent 
systems. 

In organizing and adding to the experience of pupils, 
racial subject-matter is of prime importance, because the 
pupil, when he wishes a new method of action, can turn 
to that which lies at hand, fresh from the polishing touch 
of the race, can therefore save time and effort, and can 
actually secure greater efficiency than if he had worked out 
the method as an entirely original production. 

Racial Subject-Matter. — The most apparent groups of 
racial subject-matter are the divisions or fields of knowl- 
edge, consisting of the physical sciences, such as physics, 
chemistry, botany, zoology, geology, etc.; the social sci- 
ences, consisting of sociology, ethics, history, economics, 

59 



60 METHODS OF TEACHING 

language, etc.; and the abstract sciences, consisting of 
mathematics, philosophy, etc. In addition to these well- 
organized subjects, there is a great mass of subject-matter 
that is not well organized and cannot be classified com- 
pletely under any of these heads. 

Each of these groups is constantly undergoing modifica- 
tion, some parts remaining constant, while others change. 
For instance, in the well-known ethical field, the Ten Com- 
mandments have remained constant as methods of moral 
conduct through many generations and are still considered 
valid. But certain of the other moral precepts enunciated 
by the Hebrews, such as the prohibition by Paul of partici- 
pation in religious services by women, have become obsolete. 
The Bible itself is the surviving remains of a much larger 
Hebrew literature which was current at various times but 
which has now to a great extent disappeared. And in the 
ages succeeding the writing of the books of the New Testa- 
ment, thousands of other books dealing with the principles of 
the Christian religion have been current, but only a very few 
of these have been of interest to peoples of later genera- 
tions. In like manner, many of the books upon moral sub- 
jects today are of purely contemporary value and will not 
be used by succeeding ages. 

Explanation. — This permanence and transitoriness of 
subject-matter is explained by the following facts: 

First, the needs and problems for the satisfaction of which 
subject-matter has been created and is used, are of two 
sorts — fundamental and transient. The fundamental needs 
and problems persist throughout generations; the transient 
appear for a short time and then disappear. For instance, 
much was written and many theories were put forward 
forty years ago to explain the query, Who stole Charlie 
Ross? But to this generation the problem is only a name, 



INTRINSIC FUNCTION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 6l 

and fifty years hence the last traces of vitality in the prob- 
lem will have disappeared. The scholastics were much 
concerned about the question of the trinity and unity of 
the Godhead, a problem in which this generation is not 
vitally interested. 

Second, subject-matter dealing with permanent problems 
has a better chance to live since the fundamentals remain 
through succeeding generations. 

Third, the best methods of solution will remain, while 
poorer methods are discarded. The problem of cutting 
grain is fundamental and has persisted from the beginning. 
Yet we find the hands, the sickle, the scythe, the cradle, and 
the reaper each in turn supplanted by the later improvement, 
and all by the binder, because in each case the newer method 
of solving the problem was found to be better than its 
predecessors. 

There are, then, four possibilities of survival. If a method 
solves a fundamental problem well, it has a good chance 
for permanency. If a method solves a fundamental prob- 
lem fairly well, it has a smaller chance to survive, since it 
will continue only until a better method is devised. If a 
method solves a transitory problem well, it has a chance of 
survival during the short life of that problem. And if a 
method solves a transitory problem poorly, its chances to 
live are slight. 

Racial subject-matter at the disposal of the pupil should, 
then, consist of the best methods of solving both funda- 
mental problems and transitory problems of his generation. 
The teacher has to select from among the methods now 
current those that are best, and has also to emphasize among 
these the methods which solve the fundamental problems, 
in order that what is taught may function longest in the 
pupil's youthful and adult experience. 



62 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Pupils' Subject-Matter. — The pupil's experience is 
exactly parallel to the foregoing. He has needs and prob- 
lems, some of which are fundamental, others of which are 
transitory. Activity and rest, companionship, curiosity, 
constructiveness, food, are fundamental. The needs of the 
moment are multitudinous, passing rapidly on and off the 
stage of effort. Whims, fancies, insistent demands that 
soon cease, and a thousand others, could be named. The 
pupil, like the race, has worked out solutions for his prob- 
lems. And when the problems are fundamental and the 
solutions are good, they remain ; when the solutions are 
poor they will be displaced upon the discovery of better. 

The pedagogical meaning of this is that racial methods 
of handling problems which the pupil has will be service- 
able in helping him to revise his methods and secure those 
most efficient methods which will remain with him through- 
out life, or until superseded by better methods. 

From the teacher's point of view, racial subject-matter is 
also a means by which the pupil may be led to discover his 
own problems and interests, as when a pupil, given the 
task of studying algebra, may find thereby in mathematics 
his life work. This fact is mentioned, however, with some 
hesitation, because teachers are overworking it at present 
in justifying the introduction of subject-matter very often 
initially and sometimes forever foreign to the vital expe- 
rience of many of their pupils. 

It is evident from this section that needs and problems 
should be closely related to whatever race subject-matter is 
studied, and it is implied that the teachers should closely 
scrutinize in each case the specific intrinsic functions of 
each group and unit of subject-matter, so that in the first 
place the appropriate subject-matter may be intelligently 
selected to solve problems already present in the pupil's 



INTRINSIC FUNCTION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 63 

consciousness; and so that in the second place the appro- 
priate need may be found for subject-matter that the 
teacher has tentatively decided should be presented to his 
pupils. In the following sections illustrations will be given 
of the intrinsic functions of several groups. 

Section 2. The Language Group 

The common definition of the function of language is 
that of communicating ideas. This is, of course, correct. 
But if a definition can be given that will include an analysis 
of function, answering the questions, By whom are ideas 
communicated? What ideas are communicated? and, To 
whom are they communicated? it will be more useful in 
methods of teaching. The following statement, in line 
with our conception of values, is given, and will open up 
the whole question of language teaching. 

The intrinsic function of language is (1) the communi- 
cation through words, (2) of things of value, (3) between 
persons having a like appreciation of these values, but (4) 
possessing different levels of control. In so far as other 
means than words are used for communication of things 
of value, we have language only by analogy. Painting is 
not language in the strict meaning of the word, because it 
communicates values through colors rather than through 
words. 

Language will not be used to best advantage unless there 
is something of value to be communicated. Those subjects 
upon which we have nothing of value to say and over 
which we neither have nor desire to have control, we do 
not talk about. On the other hand, we are not only willing 
but anxious to discuss those topics and ideas which are 
of great value to us and over which we either have or 
desire to have control. The more valuable thev seem, the 



64 METHODS OF TEACHING 

more enthusiastic, forceful, and burning are our words. 
The man with a message is one who has a deep apprecia- 
tion of some value and of the efficacy of some method of 
securing control over it. The ordinary school composition 
set by the teacher is not conducive to good expression if 
it is not felt by the class to be of value. Whether it is 
valuable as judged by adult standards does not materially 
affect the situation, for if the pupil does not feel the value 
it provides no motive. 

Unless there is an appreciation of values common to both 
speaker and hearer, language will not function properly. 
We do not tell our jokes to the literal-minded. The lover 
of Shakespeare does not discuss his beloved author with a 
street urchin, nor do we talk about our great ideals to one 
who will scoff at them. But if we find another lover of 
Shakespeare, how easy to converse with him for hours; 
and how easy it is to grow enthusiastic over our ideals with 
one who is in sympathy with them! On the other hand, 
we are not surprised that the dry mechanical teacher of 
language, who looks upon compositions as compositions, 
and does not lead his pupils to feel that their themes are of 
real interest to him, should have pupils who detest the 
subject. 

Unless there is a difference in level between speaker and 
hearer there will be little force in language utterance. 
Language is for the purpose either of asking questions of 
some one with better control, or of answering questions, 
implicit or explicit, by some one with a higher level of 
control. W r e do not ask a question enthusiastically of one 
who we believe knows less about the subject than we 
ourselves. Nor, on the other hand, are we eager to give 
information on a subject to those who we think know 



INTRINSIC FUNCTION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 65 

more about it than we. We have to feel that we can give 
something that the audience will consider valuable before 
we use language in the way that is most vigorous and 
forceful. 

Under some circumstances we use language as a means 
of revealing a consciousness of social worth. That is to 
say, to individuals who, because of the possession of a 
supposedly secret body of knowledge, consider themselves 
to belong to a distinct group and order, we express our 
ideas for the purpose of showing them that our possession 
of this knowledge gives us also the right to belong to the 
group. Secret societies afford examples of this. It is this 
insufficient motive which is most commonly used in school. 
The pupil recites in order to prove his knowledge of a 
certain fact which the teacher and the other pupils are 
supposed to know. 

Social approval is, in fact, one of the strongest of the 
motives operating in individual or in racial history. To win 
the commendations of the group is, for the normal indi- 
vidual, an innate desire; to incur the condemnation of 
the group is one of the most serious of punishments. So 
far as the school is concerned, this is worked to its extreme 
limit — to such an extent that it becomes often inoperative, 
as when the teacher's good opinion is not greatly prized 
by the pupils and when the "public opinion" of the chil- 
dren is at variance with the opinion of the teacher upon 
questions of what is or is not of worth. 

Pedagogical Applications. — A brief application of this 
function may be made to the problems of teaching. First, 
the pupil writing composition should choose his own indi- 
vidual topics on which to write. He should be advised to 
write superlative experiences. That is, he should choose the 



66 METHODS OF TEACHING 

most interesting, the funnifjf, the saddest, the best, etc. 
These will be the most valuable to him and most likely to 
prove interesting to his audience. 

Second, the pupil should have as his audience, not the 
teacher merely, but the class as well. If he is writing for 
the class, he will be more likely to feel that his level on his 
particular subject is above that of his audience. 

Third, the pupil should be taught not only to choose for 
his themes topics which are of value to himself, but he 
should learn to select from among such themes those which 
will be likely to prove of interest to his audience. This will 
help to keep him from being a bore in later life. 

Fourth, the teacher should cultivate the pupil's desire to 
be told things about which he does not know, and should 
cultivate the habit of making the pupils aware that they 
are able to tell him things with which he is unfamiliar. 
There are some fundamentals ignorance of which would 
be a shame to him, but there are countless other things 
to claim full knowledge of which would be sheer hypocrisy. 
This difference of level will be easier to obtain if the pupil 
writes for the other pupils as an audience. For, while 
children may hesitate, thinking they cannot tell the teacher 
things he does not know, they are always certain that upon 
some subjects other children do not know so much as they. 

This principle deals a severe blow to reproductive com- 
positions. For if all the children have been studying the 
same story or facts, it is evident that when they, write com- 
positions they know that the audience knows the facts 
already, and the writing is done either for the approval of 
the teacher or as a drudgery to be performed from neces- 
sity. Only in one way can this difficulty be alleviated, and 
that is for the teacher to raise questions of interpretation 
so that each pupil may give Jus idea of the question. But, 



INTRINSIC FUNCTION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 67 

at best, reproductive work is deadening and should be left 
for the other subjects of the course of study in which it is 
necessary for the teacher to find out how well the pupil has 
grasped the lesson. 

Forms in Language. — Each form in language has a 
specific function. Punctuation marks and rules of grammar 
assist, each in its own way, to make the communication of 
values more exact and definite. Each has been worked out 
to meet a difficulty. When the difficulty arose, the race 
worked out a device for correcting it, and these devices are 
called the forms of language. The earliest written work 
contains no periods or paragraphs. But it is very difficult 
to discover from this material what value the author was 
attempting to communicate. So the period is invented to 
indicate where a sentence ends. Indentation of paragraphs 
serves a similar purpose, and capitalization has a similar 
use. These arbitrary symbols later come to have other uses. 
But in every case each does something specific and indi- 
vidually different toward making the communication of 
values more effective. 

Pedagogical Applications. — Since forms are tools each 
with a specific function devised to help the child over specific 
difficulty, it follows without question that the form should 
be taught only when the difficulty for the removal of which 
it was created is consciously felt by the pupils. Why teach 
unity as a law of the paragraph if the pupil does not see that 
his failure to observe the law of unity results in his failure to 
make clear what he wishes to tell? Why teach paragraph- 
ing unless the pupil is made conscious of the fact that the 
thing of value which he wishes to share with his audience 
is mutilated because he does not paragraph? There is a 
reasonableness about forms which appeals to students only 
when they become conscious that language deficient in 



68 METHODS OF TEACHING 

forms fails to fulfill the function of language. A fuller 
statement of a method of introducing forms so as to observe 
this principle will be found in Chapter XV. 

Rhetoric. — The desire to see how we communicate 
values exactly has given rise to grammar and rhetoric. 
The term "rhetoric" is derived from the Latin, rhetor, 
meaning a teacher of oratory, a rhetorician. The function 
of the rhetor in Roman society was to teach rules by which 
disputants and orators might convince their audiences. The 
object in view was frequently the very practical one of 
convincing judges and common people that the line of action 
proposed by the speaker was the correct one to follow. In 
other words, the speaker had something of value, some way 
of acting, of settling a lawsuit, or of deciding political 
questions which he considered of sufficient worth to be fol- 
lowed. Rhetoric was the compilation of the rules which 
would enable him to communicate his conviction most 
effectively. In this way a rather large body of rules was 
formulated ; and to these we now apply the terms rhetoric 
and oratory, rhetoric dealing with structure of a composi- 
tion, oratory with its delivery. We include within the 
compositions considered rhetoric not only those which are 
to be delivered from the platform, but also those which 
may be published through print. However, the two cases 
are similar. In each there is, first, the valuable experience 
to express ; and, second, the rules which will make the 
expression effective. 

The study of rhetoric embraces the study of the forms 
of discourse, narration, description, argumentation, expo- 
sition, and of the paragraph. The function of each of 
these is to set forth some idea, the solution of some prob- 
lem thought to be valuable. In narration, the purpose is 
not simply to tell a story, but to embody in the story some 



INTRINSIC FUNCTION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 69 

idea possessed by the writer, to use the story as a means 
of illustration, the ''idea" being the meaning of the illus- 
tration. If the writer does not choose to use narration to 
set forth this idea, he might use description, argumenta- 
tion, or exposition, each in its own way being capable of 
conveying the all-important idea (or solution). The func- 
tion of the paragraph in this connection is to set forth the 
individual units that are to be used in the handling of the 
solution or idea. 

Grammar. — The function of grammar is to set forth 
the rules by which words are related in sentences in order 
to convey values with definiteness and ease. The original 
form of the sentence with very young children is some- 
what analogous to our present interjection. In its early 
form the sentence is composed of a single "word" which 
contains within itself, rather indefinitely, the experience 
which is to be communicated. Later, this one "word" is, 
under the growing desire to be more definite and facile in 
speech, broken up into all the grammatical forms which 
are evolved and utilized by the adult. For instance, the 
pronoun probably arose from the desire to have not only 
greater definiteness, but also greater ease of expression; 
and the adjective arose from a desire to make the impli- 
cation contained within the substantive more definite, as, 
for instance, when, instead of directing a person to a house, 
we direct him to the big, red, brick house. 1 

Pedagogical Applications. — If each grammatical form, 
even the most subtle, has been created by the race to express 
values more definitely or more easily, it follows that func- 
tional rather than structural grammar should be taught. 
The history of the sentence in its rough outlines should be 
followed in detail sufficient to set forth the problem of 
1 Cf. Chapter 19 (Illustrative Lesson on the Adjective). 



70 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



grammar, viz., the securing of definiteness and ease. Then 
no form should be taught without the class seeing how it 
aids in its own specific way the accomplishment of either of 
these aims. 1 

Punctuation. — The generic function of punctuation 
is the same as that of its parent, language; it helps to 
communicate values. Its specific contribution is that of 
helping to convey relations and connections in thought by 
means of certain arbitrary symbols called punctuation marks. 
And each of these marks has a specific function which may 
be found tabulated in any text-book on punctuation. 

Pedagogical Applications. — If each mark indicates a 
certain kind of relation, it follows that the marks cannot 
be efficiently taught as tools of communication if the child 
cannot see their intrinsic utility. For instance, the comma 
cannot be insisted upon by the teacher, nor utilized by the 
pupil, except in certain conventional situations, until the 
pupil is able to appreciate the relation which it is meant to 
express. And since the comma expresses the most subtle 
relations of any of the punctuation marks, only its simpler 
use should be taught or insisted upon before the eighth 
grade of the elementary school. 

Reading. — Reading is similar to language except in one 
particular. The reader does not express his valuable expe- 
rience in his own words. He accepts the words of another, 
and to that extent only he makes them his own. 

Hence, general methods for teaching reading are iden- 
tical with those for teaching language. Other things being 
equal, that reading will be most efficient which communi- 
cates something of value to another person who, though 

1 For an attempt in high school work to carry out the view stated 
here, see Scott & Buck's Brief English Gram mar, Scott, Foresman 
& Co., Chicago, 1908. 



INTRINSIC FUNCTION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 71 

able to appreciate its value, has not come into possession 
of it. In other words, reading is most efficient when the 
reader presents something, which to him is valuable, to 
an audience which is sympathetic but lacking in the full 
knowledge of what he presents. 

The fact that the great bulk of the reading in the public 
schools transgresses these three conditions is so common as 
to escape notice. 

How can a pupil simulate great enthusiasm for reading 
when the teacher and every other pupil in the class has the 
text open in front of them and is reading, if reading at all, 
to criticise his manner of reading. If any adult will put 
himself in such a position for an hour, and read to an 
audience which knows all about what he is reading, and is 
merely waiting for slips in expression to occur, I venture 
to say that he would be on the verge of nervous prostra- 
tion. Doubtless some of this sort of work is necessary 
for drill; doubtless, also, in the early grades, when pupils 
are interested in getting the thought through the reading 
of mysterious and romantic signs on the paper, there is 
little danger. But it is carried entirely too far when pupils 
are seldom allowed to read to an audience under the natural 
conditions of reading. 

Writing and Spelling. — Handwriting as a member of 
the language group attends to the forms of letters as its 
special province in the effort to communicate experiences of 
value. Legibility and, to a lesser degree, speed are the 
essential characteristics. Writing fulfills its intrinsic func- 
tion when it promotes with facility the transfer of expe- 
riences. The function of orthography is to arrange letters 
in words in the order decided by social usage, all of which 
is intended for the purpose of accurately communicating 
valuable experiences. The penalty for incorrect spelling is. 



72 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



essentially, not the stigma of being uneducated, but the 
failure to give thought correct expression. A phonetic or 
simplified spelling is justifiable on the ground that it will 
be less likely to engender inaccurate communication than 
is our present involved, conventional orthography. The 
objection to phonetic spelling, that we miss thereby the 
historical markings of words, does not decide the essential 
point at issue. The question must be settled upon the 
grounds of increased facility of communication. Only in 
so far as the ability to see the derivation of words adds to 
accuracy of expression can this objection be considered as 
an argument against changing to a phonetic system. 

Section 3. History 

The intrinsic function of history is to real-izz the past in 
such a way as to help us appreciate and get control of 
present values. Or, to put it in other terms, history is 
studied to (1) get a picture of the past in order to (2) 
understand the present. 

History may be studied for its own sake, or as an instru- 
ment for understanding the present. They who study it as 
an end in itself are concerned only with the past ; its rela- 
tions to the present are secondary and subsidiary to this 
other aim. They claim that the function of history is to 
real-ize the past, and that present conditions, problems, 
and activities are of use in so far as they assist in this 
process. History is from this point of view a value in 
itself, worthy of being controlled for its own sake. 

When history is studied as an instrument it is considered 
to be of value chiefly because it provides one means of 
interpreting the present. Only those situations and facts 
in the past will be selected for discussion which have close 
bearing upon the present. They must, of course, be real- 



INTRINSIC FUNCTION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 73 

ized. They must be built up, but only to a degree suffi- 
cient to throw light upon modern institutions and problems. 

Whichever view of history is adopted, we are warranted 
in saying that in both the past and the present there are 
values to be controlled, and that each generation devised 
means of securing this control. Hence, in both past and 
present the race has been busy solving problems, and every 
situation in history may be viewed as an attempt to solve 
one or several problems with the data which that particular 
group of people had at hand. Moreover, many of these 
problems are common to both past and present. 

The problem of government is of this perennial type. 
Each generation has tried to find a better solution than 
that of its predecessor, and in turn has left its work as a 
heritage to the generation which followed. In fact, all 
the great problems of society are continuous, and by follow- 
ing them from their early beginnings we can see how their 
solutions have been evolved, and how the problems them- 
selves have been modified by changing conditions. By 
tracing these problems from their fundamental form, while 
keeping constantly in view the present form of the solution, 
there is little danger of restricting the function of history 
to the realization of the past, and thereby destroying much 
good that could be gained from it. 

Pedagogical Applications. — If, when we discuss move- 
ments and institutions, we view them as solutions of prob- 
lems, and if we think of each situation in history as having 
some problem within it, we bring the history more vividlv 
into the lives of pupils than if we view the situation as 
merely collections of facts. The element of reason and 
judgment then enters to illuminate or vivify the content of 
memory and imagination. Then we may view the conti- 
nuity of history as a continuity of these problems, the 



74 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



problem and solution being affected in each situation by 
the entrance of such new factors as make changes necessary. 
(See Chapter XV.) 

Influence of Pupils Upon Function. — In the last chap- 
ter we stated that function varied with pupils. This is 
well brought out in history. As has been said, the func- 
tion of history is to solve present problems by a relation to 
the past. This holds in all grades, but the sort of problem 
solved varies. In the primary grades, history (isolated 
stories) is studied to help solve moral problems — George 
Washington and his little hatchet — or to explain how com- 
mon tools have come to be, as the bow and arrow, the 
spade, etc. In the fifth and sixth grades the function may 
be to solve problems and satisfy needs for violent and bloody 
death and perilous adventure. In the high school, perhaps, 
the problem becomes a political one. Thus the problem 
varies from grade to grade, and the intrinsic function 
changes with it — changes not in abstract statement, which 
remains the same, but in the concrete content, which varies 
from year to year. 

Section 4. Geography 

The intrinsic function of geography is to give control of 
values through the place concept. When the urchin says, 
"The jam jar is in the pantry," he is using place to control 
the value called jam. When the tourist, driving across 
country, learns that dinner may be had at Crossroads, he 
has received the assistance of geography. Oranges in Flo- 
rida, wheat in Alberta, whales in the southern Pacific, and 
tea in Japan are all cases in which values — oranges, wheat, 
whales, tea — are controlled by place in so far as place can 
control them. 

Geography is of two sorts. It tells us where values are 



INTRINSIC FUNCTION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 75 

located, and, more recently, the "new geography" has been 
attempting to explain why, in terms of place characteristics, 
they are located there. Geography tells us that oranges 
grow in Florida and California ; and, in addition, endeavors 
to show, in terms of the climatic and physiographic fea- 
tures of Florida and California, why oranges grow therd. 

In order, then, to use geography, it is necessary that the 
place in which values are found be thoroughly understood. 
And this understanding of places is given by physical geog- 
raphy, whose function, then, becomes that of analyzing the 
place concept. In other words, physical geography deals 
with the physical features of the earth's surface. It is 
divided into physiography and climatology. 

Hence, to repeat, we make geography when we take 
anything we desire to control and investigate (1) where it 
can be found, or (2) why, in terms of climate and physio- 
graphic conditions, it is found there. For instance, the 
geography of prunes would be found in a statement of 
where they grow and the conditions of climate and land 
conformation that are essential to their growth. 

It is evident that when we study the industries of a city 
we are not necessarily studying geography. It becomes a 
geographic study only when we explain in terms of climate 
and position why they are there. We could just as easily 
have sociological or economic studies of the industries. 
When the races of men are studied we are not necessarily 
studying geography. It becomes a geographical study only 
when we explain in terms of climate and land conformation 
why the races have their differentiated characteristics 
When we study the wealth, commerce, and industries of a 
country, this in itself does not constitute geography. It 
becomes a geographical study only when we endeavor to 
explain the wealth, commerce, and industries in terms of 



y6 METHODS OF TEACHING 

climate and physiographic conditions. And, lastly, when we 
study the products of a country, it becomes geography only 
when we explain these products in terms of their physical 
environment. 

A careful study of some geography text-books with this 
idea of geography in mind will show that much contained 
in them is not geography. There are explanations of how 
different products are cultivated and harvested ; the races 
of the world are described. The first of these is a study of 
industries, the second of sociology. Because of the intro- 
duction of so much non-geographical matter into the texts, 
geography has been called the scrap-basket of the sciences. 
But while it is not geography, it is certain that much of 
this material can be better treated in geography texts than 
elsewhere. Consequently, it is legitimate to have it inserted 
there. And, so far as practicable, the material should be 
treated from the standpoint of geography. However, it is 
necessary for the teacher to distinguish between what is 
and what is not geography in the texts. 

The practical value of the "new geography," which ex- 
plains in terms of physical environment w r hy things are 
found at certain places, is great. The United States 
Department of Agriculture uses it zealously in the follow- 
ing way: They have experts traveling all over the world 
trying to find new and valuable food products. When these 
are found, the conditions of temperature, moisture, length 
of season, etc., are carefully investigated. Then the De- 
partment picks out, if it can, places in this country where 
these conditions are approximately the same, and attempts 
to grow some of the newly discovered varieties there. If 
the conditions are identical, the plants thrive and the new 
food product is added to the list of domestic products. 

Very interesting geographical studies can be made by 



INTRINSIC FUNCTION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 77 

pupils who have this information at hand. For instance, 
pupils can, when furnished with the proper data, figure out 
the probability of growing tea successfully in Illinois, cot- 
ton in Nebraska, tobacco in Manitoba, wheat in the Amazon 
valley, cherries in Brazil, etc. All that is necessary is to 
know (1) the conditions under which these products grow, 
and (2) whether or not the localities selected have these 
conditions. 

Pupils Affect Intrinsic Function. — As in history, the 
type of problem which is solved by a reference to place 
varies from year to year. The primary children are inter- 
ested in the locality of things of value in their immediate 
environment — place geography. So also the boy of eleven 
or twelve sees in his geography a setting for his deeds of 
adventure. In the higher grades only does he to any marked 
extent come to see geography as the relation of these things 
of value to place. The rational function of geography is 
then for the first time understood. 

Section 5. Subjects in Primary Grades 

The intrinsic instrumental function of subjects is best 
brought out, and most easily used, in the lower grades, 
before the subjects have crystallized. To be sure, in some 
ultra-conservative schools we find the children studying 
arithmetic, reading, phonics, spelling, drawing, and con- 
struction work each in separate periods in the first two 
grades. But in progressive schools the subjects are fluent 
and one cannot always tell in the lower grades where one 
period ends and the other begins. 

Arithmetic. — It is a matter of common occurrence for 
arithmetic to be used for its elemental purpose. A game 
is played. To record it and to select the victor, recourse 
must be made to notation and addition. A snow-shoe is 



78 METHODS OF TEACHING 

to be made of such and such a length, and denominate 
numbers are used. A sheet of paper is to be divided and 
fractions occur. In all of these cases the intrinsic function 
is obvious and appealing. The purpose is seen and the need 
is felt. 

Later on, in the fourth and succeeding years, the sub- 
ject is, perhaps, studied in isolation, and the instrumental 
purpose of the subject-matter for situations outside the 
subject is not so easily seen — perhaps cannot be seen when 
learned. For instance, it may be difficult to show why the 
multiplication tables should be studied for any other reason 
than that "they should be." And I think the best attitude 
to take is this: You are studying arithmetic, you have done 
addition, but arc slow. Let us shorten the process. The 
method of shortening is by multiplication, which does it in 
this way. 

An ingenious teacher, however, can make concrete the 
need for multiplication by utilizing situations in which 
multiplication will actually save time, as, for instance, in 
keeping score where the teacher decreases the time for 
summation to such short duration that multiplication may 
be introduced as a heaven-sent device. 

Reading. — Action work in primary reading shows 
beautifully the utilization of the intrinsic function. For, 
since pupils love to be physically active, they read and 
watch with interest when they understand that the only way 
to discover what to do is locked up in words to be read. 
"Roll the ball, Harry," contains a value which some one 
wishes to possess. If Harry does not know his own name, 
or the words ball or roll, he cannot perform the action. 
Hence, he reads, realizing the intrinsic function. Later he 
may read from habit or necessity, but now he realizes its 
place. 



INTRINSIC FUNCTION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 79 

Literature. — Literature shows this same characteristic 
very clearly. The general statement of the function remains 
the same, but the objects around which it centers vary. 
For little children the function of literature has to do with 
games and fairies and rhymes. Later these change to ad- 
venture, later to strongly emotional lines during adolescence, 
and only to highly reasoned problems later. 

The teacher, then, cannot settle the intrinsic function of 
subject-matter for teaching purposes until he has found out 
the peculiar problems and characteristics of the pupils who 
will use the material. This phase of the subject will be 
discussed in Chapter VIII, and the reader is advised to read 
the section on Stages of Development in connection with 
this section. 

What holds true for these subjects holds true for all. 
Unfortunate it is that, as the work progresses further, we 
become so much the victims of isolation and formalism in 
subject-matter that this close relationship between school 
work and practical work is lost or so largely disappears. 

Section 6. Other Subjects 

The intrinsic function of painting is (1) the communi- 
cation of values through color and forms (2) between 
persons having a like appreciation of these values, but (3) 
possessing different levels of control. The intrinsic func- 
tion of music may be secured by substituting for "color 
and form" the words "consonant sounds." The intrinsic 
function of basketry is to make baskets, of carpentry to 
make articles from wood, of cooking is to provide nutritious 
food by means of heat, and of millinery to produce women's 
hats. The intrinsic function of foreign languages is to 
give us control of values which cannot be secured in our 
own language (as, for instance, by translations). 



80 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Foreign Languages. — The foreign languages have a 
peculiar place in national life and deserve a few words by 
way of analysis of the function stated. We study foreign 
languages because there is a spirit of nationality — the 
Roman spirit, the French atmosphere — which cannot be 
secured in translation ; because valuable information needed 
in the prosecution of affairs can be found only in the 
German, the French, etc., not yet having been translated; 
and because in contact with foreigners we cannot perform 
our intentions without our being able to get information 
from them or to give information to them. Sometimes a 
student of English grammatical forms receives assistance 
from a study of the cognate forms in other languages; but 
this value is not very important in the life of the average 
pupil and the usefulness of the foreign language for this 
purpose is not sufficient to make it an intrinsic function. 

All other values, such as training in exactness, etc., are 
indirect functions and can present no adequate justification 
for the study of the foreign languages. 

It is evident from this that unless a study of a foreign 
language is carried far enough to get the student into the 
spirit of a foreign people, to give him a reading knowledge 
so that he can get what he wants from its written docu- 
ments, or to give him a speaking knowledge so that he 
can converse with foreigners unable to converse in his 
tongue when he meets them, there is no adequate justifica- 
tion for the study of a foreign language. Moreover, if the 
student's adult occupation is not likely to require a knowl- 
edge of the written or spoken language, there is no justi- 
fication for its study from that point of view. In fact, the 
study of a foreign language should not be required of pupils 
in the high school in the average American community. A 
student may take it as an elective but to require it is to 



INTRINSIC FUNCTION OF SUBJECT-MATTER 8l 

require something that may have little intrinsic usefulness. 
The discipline in exactness, etc., can be secured in the 
prosecution of subjects more generally useful. 

The function of physics is to control values by means of 
the "force" concept, of chemistry by means of the concept 
of ultimate (chemical) elements, of zoology by means of 
the concept of animal life, of botany by means of the con- 
cept of plant life, and of sociology by means of the concept 
of society. 

Students are advised to work out the intrinsic function 
of each of the subjects with which they have to deal di- 
rectly or indirectly. 

Exercises 

i. (a) Show how botany and zoology have undergone 
changes due to the theory of evolution, (b) Why is it 
that books on any of the sciences become out of date so 
rapidly? 

2. Why is Shakespeare read now by so many people 
when Marlowe and Greene, who were very popular in 
Shakespeare's time, are so little read now? 

3. Observe a child for an hour and note instances of 
the occurrence of permanent and transitory needs and 
problems. 

4. Recall ten minutes of your own life recently and 
note the transitory problems that have occurred. 

5. Give a list of ten topics for compositions that would 
appeal to you as being the most interesting you could write 
upon for a sympathetic audience. 

6. Name five topics you would be delighted to have 
some one who is equipped write upon for you. Could com- 
position topics be provided in this way — that is, by having 
pupils state ones they would like to have some one write 



82 METHODS OF TEACHING 

upon and assigning these to some other pupils who think 
they are fairly competent to write upon them? 

7. Give five instances in which the desire for the ap- 
proval of the teacher was no motive for particular pupils. 

8. Give an instance in which a strong motive for a 
composition was secured by having pupils give their indi- 
vidual interpretation of a bit of subject-matter known in 
common by a class. 

9. Why is it that when you ask some pupils to write 
original compositions, they ask you to set a topic for them? 
How would you cure the difficulty? 

10. Select five well-known stories and show that the 
writer presented a problem which the characters by their 
action solved. 

11. Give five cases in which meaning was made obscure 
or incorrect because of faulty spelling ; five others where 
the same thing occurred because of incorrect punctuation ; 
also five where illegible writing produced disastrous or comic 
results. 

12. Name five great problems that mankind throughout 
its history has continually been trying to solve. Name five 
problems that were peculiar to the nineteenth century in the 
United States. 

13. Give ten examples of the simple place-geography of 
a five-year-old child. 

14. State the intrinsic specific function of all subjects in 
a course of study not discussed in this chapter. 



CHAPTER V 

THE STRUCTURE OF SUBJECT-MATTER 

When there is some need to be satisfied, subject-matter 
is created or an attempt is made to create subject-matter 
which will satisfy the need. It is, of course, obvious that 
this subject-matter must be organized in some way and 
the more logically the better. 

Definition. — A structure is defined as an organization 
of parts or elements constructed for the purpose of fulfilling 
some function. That is to say, if we consider a unit of 
subject-matter, as for instance a lead pencil, the parts are 
lead, wood, and probably rubber. Let us suppose the func- 
tion of the pencil is to carry on the writing process with 
ease. Evidently the organization and the parts selected 
must be determined by this end. The lead must be not too 
soft nor too hard. In one case it would require frequent 
sharpening (not conducive to ease) ; in the other case, the 
fingers must press too hard and at the expense of ease. 
Wood is put outside in order to protect the fingers from 
being discolored, to make the surface large enough to be 
grasped easily and to keep the brittle graphite from break- 
ing (thus saving trouble). The rubber is attached at the 
end in order to avoid the picking up of an eraser which may 
easily be lost. 

Parts and Organization. — We are well acquainted 
with the organization of parts in the "outline." When 
an outline is made, the purpose is to present in compact 

83 



84 METHODS OF TEACHING 

form the most important parts of the structure. First 
comes the statement of the function, sometimes called the 
"topic.'' And then follows the outline, or structure. 

The topic is always the solution of some problem or the 
satisfaction of some need. For instance, the topic An 
Ostrich Hunt is the attempt to solve the problem, "How 
is the ostrich hunted ?" The solution is as follows : 

Because of the ostrich's swiftness many devices have to 
be used in hunting it. 

(a) In South Africa they are hunted in some places by 
horsemen who seek to tire them down. 

(b) The Bushmen build an imitation ostrich upon their 
shoulders and thus are able to approach close enough to 
shoot them with poisoned arrows. 

We meet in arithmetic, also, with the organization of 
parts to carry out a function. The problem, Find the cost 
of constructing out of inch lumber a box 4 ft. long, 2 
ft. wide and 1 ft. deep, inside measurements, without a 
top, lumber costing $25.00 a thousand, has the following 
organization for its solution : 

Area of sides = 2X4IX1 X 1 bd. ft. = 8£ bd. ft. 
Area of ends = 2 X 2 X 1 X 1 bd. ft. = 4 bd. ft. 
Area of bottom = 4 X 4 X 1 bd. ft. = 9 B Vbd. ft. 



Total = 2ii|bd. ft. 
1000 bd. ft. cost $25.00. 
2ijf bd. ft. cost. 21 J J /iooo of $25.00 = 53c. 

Structure and Logic. — Tt is a truism that every unit 
of subject-matter that is well constructed is logical in its 
construction. This means, first, that every part included 
in the organization must be relevant to the function of the 
whole. As an example of a poor structure the following 



STRUCTURE OF SUBJECT-MATTER 85 

may be cited. A lesson upon The Benefits of Commerce 1 
has the following structure : 

1. It enables us to exchange things we have but do not need, 
for other things which we need, but do not have. 

(a) Southern cotton growers have more cotton than 
they need, but do not manufacture cloth. The New 
England States manufacture cotton cloth but do not 
have the raw cotton. Hence an exchange is a benefit. 

(b) Tea grows plentifully in China and sugar in the 
West Indies. We do not raise these, but we do raise 
many things which the Chinese and West Indians do 
not raise so easily, and so an exchange is of advan- 
tage to both. 

2. Water is very useful for commerce, 
(a) Cheaper way of transportation: 

(1) ships carry larger loads than wagons, 

(2) ships float and therefore require little force to 
move them, 

(3) this is realized as a reason for constructing canals. 

3. Railroads are of use in transporting commercial com- 
modities. 

The first division is relevant but the second and third 
are not. They deal with "facilities for transportation," or 
some such question. If the author desired to keep them 
in his organization, he should have shown how they are 
benefits flowing from commerce. 

Second. All the parts most relevant to the function 
must be included. Here an illustration may be taken from 
any machine. Suppose in a sewing machine the needle is 

1 Sander's Third Reader (1853), PP- 87-8. 



86 METHODS OF TEACHING 

lacking-, then the functioning of the machine will be im- 
possible. Again, when the problem arises, Shall I buy 
these curtains for my window ? When I organize all the 
facts and parts I may bring in cost, weight, etc., but leave 
out the question of harmony of color with the paper in the 
room. This may invalidate the whole organization. In 
choosing a business partner I may, in thinking it over, 
consider his honesty, sympathy, physical fitness, etc., and 
because I fail to think of his lack of aggressiveness the 
purpose of the partnership may be defeated. 

Pedagogical Hints. — To help the reader to find the 
function of any unit of written subject-matter several de- 
vices are used by writers. 

First. Frequently it is indicated in the title. The Benefits 
of Commerce, An Ostrich Hunt, The Origin of Species, 
Hoiv Valmond Came to Pontiac, The History of England, 
etc., all indicate function in a general way. Sometimes, 
however, little assistance is given by the title. Macbeth, 
Sandolphin, Lady Clara J^ere de Verc do not indicate in 
any exact way what is to be the specific function of the 
selection. 

Second. The introduction to a selection and the topical 
sentence of a paragraph frequently give specific assistance 
in finding the function. 

Third. Certain devices are used in text-books, such as 
subject headings and marginal headings. Considerable 
use of all three of these devices is made throughout this 
text, as a rapid leafing of the pages will show. 

Fourth. It should be noted that, particularly in litera- 
ture and music and art, it is sometimes impossible to ade- 
quately express the function in words. Critics who try to 
do so do not always agree, and probably the creator of the 
work could not state its precise function. The thing he 



STRUCTURE OF SUBJECT-MATTER 87 

wishes to express may be so large, so indefinable, or so 
largely a matter of feeling that one statement will not do 
it justice. Indeed, the fact that literary criticism frowns 
upon the moral at the end of a poem, and the fact that art 
critics object to the title's being too specific seem to indi- 
cate that it is not always wise to try to state the function 
even when it might be done. 

Academically this is correct. Practically in dealing 
with immature children the teacher makes no serious mis- 
take in giving what seems to be the best statement of 
function, and in then organizing the work of art to show 
how the function is fulfilled. This course does not mean 
that he need show the subtleties of technique by which the 
result was secured, but rather to lay bare the main divisions 
of content, going into detail as far as the maturity of the 
students will warrant. Outside of the aesthetic field, there 
is usually little difficulty and there is no objection to stating 
the function in concise form. Illustrations are given in the 
preceding chapters. 

Explicit Relations. — In making an outline of the 
structure, it is well for teachers to make the relation of 
parts to the central function explicit. It is not always 
sufficient to merely have the relation in mind; to ensure 
the proper teaching of the relations it is advisable to 
actually state them. As an illustration the two following 
forms of outline may be given. Let us suppose that the 
function of a study of English history is "to show the 
formation of a popular national government of a repre- 
sentative character." The outline may be made as follows : 
I. Anglo-Saxon government (to 1066). 
II. Norman and early Plantagenet government (1066- 
1215). 

III. Later Plantagenet government (1215-1485). 



88 METHODS OF TEACHING 

IV. Tudor government (1485- 1603). 
V. Stuart government (1603- 1688). 
VI. Modern English government (1688-date). 

Or it may be made in this way, which differs from the 
foregoing in that the function of each subdivision in rela- 
tion to the function of the whole is stated; i. e., is made 
explicit : 

Function: To show the formation of a national popu- 
lar government of a representative character. 

Structure: I. Anglo-Saxon government (to 1066), 
which shows in the earliest form of the government strong 
local and weak central institutions. 

II. Norman and Early Plantagenet government (1066- 
1215), which describes the establishment of a monarchy 
so strong that it overrides the local institutions. 

III. Later Plantagenet government (12 15-1485), which 
describes the rise of parliament but its failure to control 
the monarchy. 

IV. Tudor government (1475-1603), whose significance 
is that in this period the people acquiesce in a strong mon- 
archy because of commercial and religious interests. 

V. Stuart government (1603-1688). This describes 
the victory of parliament over an absolute monarchy, and 
the definite establishment of a constitutional monarchy. 

VI. Modern English government (1688 to date), which 
exemplifies the manner in which a strong central govern- 
ment is based on strong local institutions. 

A statement of this latter sort made by the teacher will 
convince him as nothing else will that he has a logical 
organization. With such a statement he will be in less 
danger of going astray in his work from day to day. And 
this is the more certain if the principle is applied also to 



STRUCTURE OF SUBJECT-MATTER 89 

divisions subsidiary to these main divisions. Here the same 
procedure should be followed. The relation of the central 
theme should be stated clearly. Let us choose any one of 
the divisions stated above and make an outline for it, giving 
the function of each subdivision as follows: 
V. The Stuart Government. 

Function: To show how absolutism was overthrown and 
a constitutional government was definitely established 
by the people of England (as one of the steps by which 
a strong national government of representative charac- 
ter was established). 
Structure: 

1. The Crown and Parliament (1603-1640). Its sig- 
nificance is that it throws into strong relief the oppo- 
sition between the royal prerogative and constitutional 
power. 

2. The Privy Council. This exemplifies a method by 
which the executive tried to make itself stronger than 
parliament. 

3. The Constitutional Resolution (1460-1649). This 
is the violent demonstration by parliament of its right 
to control the monarchy. 

4. Military Despotism (1649-1660). Its significance 
is that in the throes of readjustment the parliament 
was supplanted by a military despotism. 

5. The Restoration Government (1660-1668). This 
exemplifies the unwilling compliance of the monarchy 
with constitutional forms. 

Such a statement as this, in so far as it is explicitly 
a statement of the bearing of each subhead upon the func- 
tion of the large division and upon the function of the 
whole organization, will, as said above, help the teacher 
to get the proper perspective. It will keep him from intro- 



90 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



ducing irrelevant material, and from emphasizing unim- 
portant points in the history. 

For the direction of students in making outlines it is well 
to call the main divisions of a structure the divisions to the 
first degree and the subdivisions of these divisions to the 
second degree, etc. Thus, of the last two outlines the first 
is an outline to the first degree, and the last is an outline of 
one division to the second degree. 

Relativity of Function and Structure. — The structure 
varies with the function. For instance, if we make the 
function of American history the portrayal of deeds of 
heroism, we would naturally organize a structure upon that 
basis. We would select all the deeds of heroism and would 
neglect other facts. But, if the function is made that of 
showing the organization of independent local governments 
into a strong federal government, we would select our facts 
from a different basis. Many of the facts that would be 
used in the former case would be omitted in the latter 
case; many others would be added, and each would have 
an emphasis placed upon it in harmony with the function. 

On the other hand, the function is dependent upon the 
structure. For instance, in American history we cannot 
make the function that of showing the growth of Oriental 
despotism, because the facts cannot fulfill that function. 
And likewise, it is a sad wrenching of the structure to make 
the study of literature that of exemplifying rules of gram- 
mar. The poem was not intended for that ; the structure 
will not bear such a function without destroying itself. 
Again, we cannot use a feather to drive nails. The feather 
can be made to serve only those functions which are con- 
sonant with its structure. 

Units of Subject-Matter. — The term "unit" is used 
in connection with subject-matter to indicate a relatively 



STRUCTURE OF SUBJECT-MATTER 91 

distinct portion of a subject. We speak of each unit of 
subject-matter as being an instrument designed for a specific 
purpose. But the difficulty is that the term may be applied 
in such a way as to lead to confusion. For instance, in 
the illustration in English history given above, we have 
six units in the whole. But we may also use the term in 
describing the subdivisions under V, and state that these 
are five units. 

Groups. — We cannot speak of the smaller units as 
recitations, because frequently two or three recitations may 
be occupied in the study of one unit. Hence probably the 
best we can do is to use the term "group" for these larger 
divisions, and the term "unit" for the smallest units that 
are taken up as relatively complete and distinct divisions. 
In the subject just referred to we may then say that there 
are six groups, and five units in the fifth group. 

Units and Recitations. — Usually one recitation is taken 
up with one unit. Frequently several recitations are needed 
to get control of one unit. Sometimes two units or more 
may be taken up in one recitation. No rule can be laid 
down as to the amount of subject-matter to be covered 
in a recitation, unless the one who makes the rule knows 
the class and the subject-matter. 

Exercises 

By function is here meant the intrinsic function. 

1. State the function and structure of some particular 
safety pin, house slipper, corkscrew, chair, match, waste- 
paper basket, and comb. 

2. In what respects may each of these be poor struc- 
tures by not having necessary elements? 

3. In what respects may each of these be poor struc- 
tures because they have unnecessary elements? 



9 2 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



4. Select three different types of problem in arith- 
metic and state the function and structure of each. 

5. What are the advantages of making the relations of 
the elements of the structure to the function explicit? 

6. Would you require pupils in a recitation to make 
each element explicit always? Why? 

7. In organizing a lesson for teaching, is it necessary 
to work out the outline into divisions beyond the first 
degree ? Why ? 

8. Take a text and divide into groups to the third 
degree of division. 

9. Divide one of these last subdivisions into units. 
10. Divide this subdivision into daily lessons and indi- 
cate how closely the daily lessons correspond to the units 
in size. 



CHAPTER VI 

EXAMPLES OF FUNCTION AND STKUCTUKE 

Section i. Every Unit of Subject- Matter Has a Function 
Which Its Structure Is Organized to Perform 

Hygiene. — "And now, what becomes of this breath 
which passes from your lips ? Is it merely harmful ; merely 
waste? God forbid! God has forbidden that anything 
should be merely harmful or merely waste in this so wise 
and well-made world. The carbonic acid which passes 
from your lips at every breath — ay, even that which oozes 
from the volcano crater when the eruption is past — is a 
precious boon to thousands of things of which you have 
daily need. Indeed there is a sort of hint at physical truth 
in the old fairy tale of the girl, from whose lips, as she 
spoke, fell pearls and diamonds; for the carbonic acid of 
your breath may help hereafter to make the pure carbonate 
of lime of a pearl, or the still purer carbon of a diamond. 
Nay, it may go — in such a world of transformation do we 
live — to make atoms of coal strata, which shall lie buried 
for ages beneath deep seas, shall be upheaved in continents 
which are yet unborn, and there be burnt for the use of a 
future race of men, and resolved in their original elements." 

— Charles Kingsley. 

Function: The function of this subject-matter is to answer 
the question, Is breath exhaled merely waste ? 

Structure: The answer is, No. The reasons for it are 
the following: 

93 



94 .METHODS OF TEACHING 

1. The general one, that it is not according to the 

economy of God's laws. 

2. That it is a boon to nature. This is illustrated by 

stating that it may produce : 

(a) vegetation, 

(b) pearls, 

(c) diamonds, 

(d) coal. 

Literature. — From Cymbclinc, by Shakespeare. 

"Hark, hark! the lark at heaven's gate sings, 

And Phoebus 'gins arise, 
His steeds to water at those springs 

On chalic'd flowers that lies; 
And winking Mary-buds begin 

To ope their golden eyes ; 
With everything that pretty is, 

My lady sweet, arise; 
Arise, arise ! " 

Function: To portray the state of mind of a lover in his 
effort to awaken his lady-love. 

Structure: This may be analyzed as follows: 

i. The intellectual content is expressed in his argu- 
ments. He calls her to awaken because : 

(a) the lark is singing, 

(b) the sun is rising, 

(c) the flowers are opening, 

(d) everything that is pretty is rising, 

(e) it is time, therefore, for you to arise. 
2. The emotional quality is expressed as follows : 

(a) The stimulating beauty and the joyousness 
of the morning, as felt by the lover, is 
expressed by : 



FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE 95 

i. The magnificent imagery in which his 

arguments are clothed ; 
ii. The exhilarating rhythm, 
(b) His love for his lady is suggested in: 
i. "With everything that pretty is," 
ii. "My lady sweet." 
3. The keenness of his desire is shown by the use of 
the staccato calls : 

(a) "Hark, hark!" 

(b) "Arise, arise!" 

Function and Structure in Arithmetic. — Arithmetic 
affords an excellent example of units of subject-matter 
which have a very definite function and a very definite 
structure. For instance, if we start with the function of 
arithmetic, and state it to be the providing of methods for 
measuring quantity, we can at once see how the different 
processes assist in fulfilling this function. For example, 
the function of addition is to provide a means for securing 
the sum of like quantities. The function of multiplication 
is to provide a short method of adding, and the function 
of the multiplication table is to facilitate the process of 
learning the multiplication facts. The function of fractions 
is to provide a means of computing quantities whose unit is 
less than 1 ; and among these we have decimals with the 
function of providing a peculiar and easy method of han- 
dling all fractions having as denominator 10 or a power 
of 10. In the same category come denominate numbers 
whose function is that of providing a method of handling 
quantities whose units are what are technically known as 
"measures." Similarly, percentage has as its function the 
manipulation of certain quantities which can be handled 
most easily by computing them in terms of 100. A promis- 



g6 METHODS OF TEACHING 

sory note has for its function the recording definitely in 
writing of a promise to pay. Interest has as its function 
the computing of the amount to be paid for the sum bor- 
rowed. In the same way, each of the processes of arith- 
metic may be shown to be a tool whose function, or pur- 
pose, or use is to help in the computation of arithmetical 
quantities. 

Furthermore, each of these processes has a structure, 
that is, a way of working which helps to carry out its 
function. If we examine addition we find that we have 
integers and decimal notation to carry it out. Multiplica- 
tion is constructed with its integers, its decimal notation, 
and its dependence upon memory for the sums of certain 
like quantities, by which it performs efficiently its work of 
shortening addition. Likewise, the promissory note has 
many ways of safeguarding the transaction of borrowing 
money, such as the date and time to run, the rate of interest, 
the amount written in words as well as figures to avoid 
error, and the signature of the borrower. These which 
make up the structure of the promissory note all help to 
make it a safe method of recording financial transactions. 

And so with every process. The function being deter- 
mined, the structure follows freely. The teacher should take 
every process in arithmetic and view it in this functional 
way, so that each will be viewed as an instrument which 
has its own peculiar value in certain surroundings. For, 
just as the tack hammer can do certain work better than 
the carpenter's hammer, so the carpenter's hammer can do 
better work in some conditions than the trip hammer. Each 
of the processes of arithmetic has its own peculiar field to 
work in, a field in which it is of most service and most 
easily applicable. Each process is a tool just as much as a 



FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE 97 

hammer is a tool. And, further, just as the tack hammer 
has one kind of structure because its function is to drive 
tacks, while the trip hammer has another structure because 
its function is to crush steel, so it is with each process in 
arithmetic. Each has its own way of acting, its own struc- 
ture which has been built up by the race with infinite care 
to perform the work for which it was created. 
Spelling. — 

rare worthless willing 

exit disperse rejoicing 

plenty sullen separate 

advance miser money 

Function: To provide an exact form by which to sym- 
bolize the idea for which each word stands. Rare has 
thus the function of symbolizing the idea "rare." Exit 
has the function of symbolizing the idea "exit," etc. 
Each thus has a different function. 
Structure: These words are built up by the organization 
of letters which unfortunately do not follow any logical 
order. Their structure has been determined by con- 
vention, and has to be accepted as it is. The structure 
consists in each case of the letters as arranged by 
convention. 

believe receive reprieve 

grieve achieve sieve 

conceive retrieve sleigh 

feign deceive neigh 

Function: To provide an exact form by which to sym- 
bolize the idea for which each word stands. 
Structure: The structure of the words follows a definite 
rule (with exceptions) with regard to the order of the 
i and the e. That is to say, the order of the i and the e 



9 8 METHODS OF TEACHING 

is determined by the following rule : "i before e, except 
after c, or when pronounced like a, as in neighbor, and 
weigh." 

Section 2. In the Organization of New Subject-Matter the 

Function Is First Determined and the Structure 

Is Built Up to Perform the Function 

English History. — It is, of course, clear that the 
method of organizing units of subject-matter dc novo should 
be the same as those which have been found in subject- 
matter already effectively organized, and illustrations of 
how this may be applied to history and theme-writing will 
be sufficient. In the first place, the function of the whole 
course is decided upon. Let us suppose that in English 
history we wish to make the subject-matter serve the func- 
tion, inadequate though it be, of showing the rise in govern- 
mental power of the common people of England. When 
we proceed to organize our subject-matter we have a well- 
defined line to which to hew. There is a vast array or 
accumulation of facts which are of interest, some for one 
purpose, some for another. But we may choose only those 
events which had an influence upon the rise of the common 
people in governmental power. We can, for instance, deter- 
mine to what extent and from what standpoint to study the 
wars of England. For example, we would be concerned 
very little with the battles of the Hundred Years War, but 
would lay great stress upon the effects of the war in modify- 
ing the political power of the common people. We would 
profitably omit all the Wars of the Roses except the decisive 
battles, and would retain those only as fitting centers around 
which to collect the political influences of the wars. 

We can also determine the characters in English history 
upon which to lay most stress. The character of Simon de 



FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE 99 

Mont fort might receive more attention than that of Piers 
Gaveston. We are able, too, to determine the elements of 
the characters of the different sovereigns upon which to lay 
stress; for instance, those characteristics of King John 
which most angered his people would be most important, 
those characteristics of Richard I which enabled his people 
to gain more power would be significant ones, and those 
characteristics of Charles I which made the people restive 
under his authority should be selected. We see why cer- 
tain periods should be emphasized and other periods treated 
briefly. For example, the period from 449 to 900 a. d., the 
reigns of Henry I, of Henry II, and of John, the Stuart 
period, and the period immediately preceding and succeed- 
ing 1832, should be treated fully in their political aspects. 
On the other hand, the Yorkist and the Tudor periods 
should receive relatively less attention. 

The teacher then knows, and the children know, that 
their reason for studying the tenth lesson, or the twenty- 
fifth lesson, or any lesson, is to see how the growth in 
political power of the common people was affected by the 
events portrayed in that particular unit. And the pupils 
at the end of their study of English history should have 
their subject-matter organized in such a way that they can 
trace the development of this power from 449 a. d. to the 
present time, and state the conditions which have influenced 
the development, step by step. 

Two things may be said in relation to the foregoing 
treatment of English history. (1) It is not necessary for 
us to assume that this is the best function that English 
history can serve. The points are these : the function must 
be determined, whatever it may be; and the teacher and 
pupils should have that objective point before them con- 
tinually. (2) In so far as there are other facts in English 



IO o METHODS OF TEACHING 

history which may be of value but which have yet had no 
appreciable effect upon the determined function, they may 
be noted, but they should be recognized as being incidental 
and relatively isolated from the trunk line of study. 

Theme-Writing. — In writing a paper upon any topic 
the first step is to determine the problem which the paper 
intends to solve, or, stating it in terms of subject-matter, 
the function of the subject-matter which is about to be 
organized. Then the pupil has to think out the main argu- 
ments or steps that he will use in solving this problem, and 
these will form the skeleton of the paper. Then each of 
these main arguments must be studied in detail to get 
facts to support it. Thus a more detailed outline for the 
paper is obtained and the paper will be completed by con- 
necting the arguments and massing the details in appropriate 
language. Here, again, the function is of supreme value. 
It gives the standpoint from which to select subject-matter, 
and indicates the standard by which to judge the logical 
quality of the paper; for the function will check up every 
point, even to the minor ones, since anything irrelevant to 
it must be excluded, and everything that is relevant and 
reasonably within the experience of the pupil is expected 
to be inserted. 

Section 3. The Same General Subject-Matter May Have 

Different Functions with Correspondingly 

Different Organizations 

Arithmetic. — The principle which is stated at the head 
of this section may be illustrated as follows : If we take 
the Fodder Tables and the Tables of Nutriment for a Day's 
Feeding and select a few facts, it is an easy matter to show 
how these may have different organizations when fulfilling 
different functions. 



FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE 101 

Dry Pro- Carbohy- 

Fodder. Pounds. Matter. tern. drates, etc. 

Corn stover 10 5.95 .17 3.24 

Clover hay 10 8.5. .71 4.2 

Corn meal 1 .85 .063 .71 

Cottonseed meal 1 .9 .45 .4 

Wheat bran 6 5.1 .38 4.3 

These figures refer to the constituent food products 
selected. For instance, 10 lbs. of clover hay contains 8.5 
lbs. of dry matter and in the dry matter is found .71 lb. of 
protein and 4.2 lbs. of carbohydrates, etc. 

It is known, further, that (a) a milch cow weighing 1,000 
lbs. and producing 22 lbs. of milk per day requires 29 lbs. 
of dry matter, including 2.5 lbs. of protein and 13 lbs. of 
carbohydrates per day, and (b) beef cattle from 18 to 24 
months old, weighing 950 lbs., require per day 22.8 lbs. of 
dry matter, including 1.71 lbs. of protein and 11.4 lbs. 
of carbohydrates. 

These seven facts may be organized differently, some 
being used in one proportion and some in another, some 
being omitted and others utilized. For instance, if we wish 
to make a balanced ration for each of the kinds of cattle 
mentioned, we may have different organizations, in detail 
as follows: Function: To make a ration for the milch 
cow referred to above. 

Structure: 

Dry Pro- Carbohy- 

Fodder. Pounds. Matter. tein. drates, etc. 

Clover hay 10 8.5 .71 4.2 

Corn stover 10 5.95 .17 3.24 

Corn meal 4 3.4 .26 2.86 

Wheat bran 5 4.4 .6 2.40 

Cottonseed meal 2 1.8 .9 .8 

Total 31 24.05 2.64 13.5 

Standard 29 2.5 13 

This provides a satisfactory balance of ration (slightly 
light in bulk). It is, therefore, an organization that fulfills 
its function. 

For the second kind of cattle another organization of the 
fodder constituents is possible, as follows : 



102 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Function: To make a ration for the beef cattle referred 
to above. 
Structure: 

Dry Pro- Carbohy- 

Fodder. Pounds. Matter. tein. drates, etc. 

Corn meal 8 6.8 .48 5.7 

Cottonseed meal 1 .9 .45 .4 

Clover hav 10 8.5 .71 4.2 

Corn stover 5 2.97 .08 1.62 

Total 24 10.17 1.72 11.02 

Standard 22.8 1.71 11.4 

This slightly different organization is made by the selec- 
tion of another function to be fulfilled. 

Geography. — Suppose we take the following problem : 
What are the effects of the motions of the earth relative to 
the sun? In a general way, the subject-matter organized 
to answer this question may be considered to be composed 
of three facts: (i) the earth revolves around the sun in 
the plane of its orbit, once a year; (2) it revolves on its 
own axis once a day; (3) the axis of the earth is inclined 
23 1 / from the perpendicular to the plane of the orbit. 

Now, this subject-matter may be made to serve two pur- 
poses, among others. 

(1) Function: To explain the cause of the seasons. 

Structure: If we take any point upon the earth's 
surface, it is evident that in the revolution of the 
earth around the sun there will be one time in 
the year when the rays of the sun are more nearly 
perpendicular to that point than at any other time. 
The sun's rays are most effective when they are 
perpendicular, and this gives rise to summer. At 
another time of the year, when the earth is at the 
other extreme of the orbit, the rays fall most 
obliquely on that same point. Under these cir- 
cumstances the heat rays are less effective, and 
this gives rise to winter. There are two periods 



FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE 103 

during which the sun's rays are inclined at angles 
half way between these two extremes. The one of 
these that follows summer is fall, which is warmer 
than winter and colder than summer, and the other 
is spring, which is also warmer than winter and 
colder than summer. 
(2) Function: To explain the fact that the days are 
longer in summer than in winter. 
Structure: Consider any point in the northern hemi- 
sphere. In summer the sun's rays reach beyond 
the north pole, and will cover more than half the 
northern hemisphere. As the point revolves 
around the earth's axis, it will be in the sunlight 
more than one-half the time. Hence the days will 
be longer than the nights. 
In these examples the three facts that were stated at the 
beginning, when amplified and illustrated sufficiently, as in 
text-books on geography, usually contain the facts stated 
in the solution of the two problems. The point to be 
emphasized is that we may, if we so desire, take the organi- 
zation of subject-matter made to fulfill an encyclopedic 
purpose and approach it from different standpoints, as in 
the instances just given. And a different organization of 
the original subject-matter will result as each of these dif- 
ferent problems is successively in -mind. In such cases we 
get a new organization by laying emphasis upon certain of 
,the facts and subordinating the other facts found within the 
larger organization. 

Literature. — That a selection in literature may have 
different functions is very well exemplified by the well- 
known poem, Excelsior. From one standpoint, the function 
may be to illustrate the persistence of an ideal; from an- 
other standpoint, and this the standpoint of young children, 



104 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



it may be that of portraying the adventures of a remarkable 
youth. Upon the first basis we are fortunate in having 
Longfellow's 1 own statement of the purpose of the poem. 
(The author's statement is indicated by quotation marks.) 
(i) Function: "I have had the pleasure of receiving 
your note in regard to the poem, Excelsior, and 
very willingly give you my intention in writing it. 
This was no more than to display, in a series of 
pictures, the life of a man of genius, resisting all 
temptations, laying aside all fears, heedless of all 
warnings, and pressing right on to accomplish his 
purpose. 
Structure: "His motto was 'excelsior' — and 'higher/ 
He passes through the Alpine village — through the 
rough, cold paths of the world — where the peas- 
ants cannot understand him and where his watch- 
word is an 'unknown tongue.' He disregards the 
happiness of domestic peace and sees the glaciers — 
his fate — before him. He disregards the warnings 
of the old man's wisdom and the fascinations of 
woman's love. He answers to all, 'Higher yet/ 
The monks of St. Bernard are the representations 
of religious forms and ceremonies, and with their 
oft-repeated prayer mingles the sound of his voice, 
telling them there is something higher than forms 
and ceremonies. Filled with these aspirations, he 
perishes, without having reached the perfection he 
longed for ; and the voice heard in the air is the 
promise of immortality and progress ever upward." 
The analysis from the second standpoint might proceed 
somewhat as follows: 

1 Longfellow's Poetical Works, Vol. i, pp. 79 and 80, Houghton, 
Mifflin & Co., 1892 edition. 



FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE 



105 



(2) Function: To describe the adventures of a lonely, 
peculiar youth in climbing an Alpine mountain. 
Structure: I. Stanzas 1 and 2 show his loneliness 
by the terms 'strange device' and 'unknown tongue,' 
and his peculiarity is shown by his carrying a 
banner, his sad brow, and his flashing eyes. 
2. Stanzas 3 to 9 tell of his adventures. 

(a) Stanza 3 — he passes homes, and his loneliness 
and peculiarity are shown by the fact that he 
sees the comforts of homes, but, even though 
he is so lonely that he groans, he passes 
them by. 

(b) Stanza 4 — he meets an old man, and again his 
peculiarity is shown in his paying no attention 
to the dangers ahead. 

(c) Stanza 5 — he meets a maiden; again his lone- 
liness is shown by the tears that come to his 
eyes, and his peculiarity by his still pressing 
on, though with a sigh. 

(d) Stanza 6 — late at night he meets a peasant, 
who warns him of other dangers. His pecu- 
liarity is shown again in his still pressing on. 

(e) Stanza 7 — shows him in the morning, away 
up the mountain-side ; his loneliness is shown 
again by the expression, 'the startled air.' 

(f) Stanza 8 — depicts him. as finally dying, alone, 
frozen; and his peculiarity is further shown 
by his still grasping the banner in his hand 
of ice. 

(g) Stanza 9 — again shows the strangeness of the 
youth, in that, as he lay there, a strange event 
occurs, "that from the sky a voice fell like a 
falling star, Excelsior." 



106 METHODS OF TEACHING 

It is undoubtedly true that many children who read the 
poem, Excelsior, appreciate only this latter rather meager 
function. But waiving the question of the advisability of 
teaching the poem to children who get nothing more than 
this out of it, it furnishes a good illustration of how litera- 
ture may serve some other function than that which the 
author primarily intended. 1 Oftentimes in the exposition of 
his deeper meaning he uses illustrations and allegory, which 
to the discerning mind are seen to be merely the vehicles of 
his meaning, but which to one not so discerning become 
the whole content of the idea. An excellent example of 
this allegorical presentation of meaning is furnished by 
Bunyan in Pilgrim's Progress. 

1 See Chapter III. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE HIGH SCHOOL COUESE OF STUDY 

Section i. Factors in the Selection of Subject- Matter 

The course of study is usually discussed in educational 
administration rather than in methods of teaching, because 
the latter in the last few years, during which the fields of 
educational theory have been in a process of differentiation, 
has been investigating methods of presentation of subject- 
matter, to the partial neglect of the organization of subject- 
matter. But subject-matter is an essential factor in the 
teaching process and right methods are conditioned by right 
subject-matter, hence, it is evident that the selection and 
organization of subject-matter may be appropriately dis- 
cussed in methods of teaching. Consequently, a chapter 
on the high school course of study is introduced here to 
round out our discussion of subject-matter. 

The theory of organizing a high school course of study is 
extremely easy of statement, although the working of the 
theory over into practice is difficult, since we have little 
scientifically accurate data about pupils of high school age. 
This lack of accurate data causes a good deal of mere con- 
jecture and of reliance upon individual opinion in the deter- 
mination of a course of study. Consequently, the course of 
study suggested in this chapter must be considered to be 
purely tentative, subject to modification at the hands of 
those whose opinions differ from those of the writer. 

But while the course of study is subject to opinion, the 

107 



I0 8 METHODS OF TEACHING 

general method of selection is pretty well substantiated by 
writers upon education and its allied subjects. 

The Pupil as a Factor in Selection. — The first factor 
that enters into the selection of subject-matter for any course 
of study, elementary or high school, is the needs of the 
pupils. For, since teaching, endeavors to give the pupil con- 
trol of his values and the appreciation of values not yet his 
own, it is necessary that the course of study be fitted to his 
system and scheme of values in a rather intimate way. The 
subject-matter the race has worked out cannot fall like an 
avalanche upon him. It has to be adjusted to his appetite 
in order that it become assimilated. 

The high school pupil has four characteristics that are 
relevant to our problem. In the first place, he has many 
active needs and interests, as any person can see without 
difficulty who watches high school boys and girls and be- 
comes intimately acquainted with them. They have prob- 
lems of their own, intellectual, social, and moral. Adoles- 
cence is the peculiar time of religious conversion. All these 
ought to be understood, but unfortunately they have not 
been extensively studied and are not well known. Practi- 
cally all the work that has been published has been done 
by Hall and his pupils, for a resume of which the reader is 
directed to Hall's Adolescence. 

In the second place, high school students are suggestible 
and can frequently be made to feel the need of certain 
kinds of subject-matter in which they have not up to that 
time been actually interested. This can be done within 
certain limits. The practical high school teacher can recall 
many instances in which a worthy interest in new subjects 
and materials has been stimulated; and can recall many 
instances in which it seemed impossible to secure interest on 



HIGH SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY 



109 



the part of some of the pupils in certain subjects. The 
teacher who recalls instances of failure usually blames him- 
self, but, while the fault may be justly laid upon the teach- 
er's methods, it is only partly his. Either or both of two 
other factors may cause failure; viz., limitations to the 
range of interests of the pupils, and of available subject- 
matter. They may not have had the capacity for interest 
in the subject at that particular time. Possibly or prob- 
ably it would come later, but it is beyond calling range at 
this stage of the pupil's development. 

In the third place, because the adolescent has passed the 
limits of physical and psychological childhood upon the 
acquisition of sexual maturity, he has acquired capacity 
for understanding and appreciating most of the problems 
and attitudes of adult experience. Hence, in a rudimen- 
tary way he is capable of becoming interested in all the 
more fundamental aspects of adult life. He can appreciate 
now quite vividly, though not with clear intelligence, the 
social, political, economic, religious, and moral questions of 
society. Being not yet by any means mature, he does not 
have the adult's soberness and persistence, but he feels the 
problems in his vague and spasmodic way, and he is pre- 
pared to take on the study of subjects in which in pre- 
adolescent days he had no interest and for which he could 
be made to feel none. 

In the fourth place, this lack of maturity, together with 
certain other factors, causes him to study popular rather 
than scientific facts. Popular science is more attractive 
than systematic science. He is interested chiefly in such 
physics as will suffice to explain why objects work as they 
do. The systematic study of the theory of electricity he 
is not yet prepared for. He picks up his sciences in scraps, 



1 10 METHODS OF TEACHING 

the scraps being those facts which explain the workings of 
the common objects that surround him. 1 

The average adolescent, then, may be assumed to be most 
interested in those things which touch his daily life, now 
widened to take in the fundamental problems and processes 
of the popular — not scientific — society in which he lives. 
He is not a "student," nor a ''scientist"; he is a "practical 
man," with his practical interests wider than they will prob- 
ably ever be again, after the narrowing effects of a selected 
occupation have had a chance to be felt. 

Racial Subject-Matter. — The second factor entering 
into the organization of a course of study is racial subject- 
matter — the fields of knowledge that have been worked out 
in systematic form by the race. Each of these subjects has 
an intrinsic function, and certain indirect results follow 
from their study. They are at the command of the teacher 
who can utilize them in helping the pupil to control his 
values and to appreciate new ones. Hence, it is necessary 
that the teacher know the intrinsic functions of each sub- 
ject, so that the pupil may be brought into contact with 
each, or divisions of each, at propitious times when the 
appropriate need is present or is standing just outside the 
door, waiting to be invited in. The determination of these 
interests and attitudes of the adolescent, unlike the deter- 
mination of the needs, is capable of exact definition, as 
illustrated in the three preceding chapters. And such defini- 
tion is necessary as a step in the organization of a high 
school course of study. 

Section 2. Details of Selection 

Necessity for Selection. — The two foregoing factors 
determine the selection of subjects and their organization 

1 Hall's Adolescence, Vol. 2, Chap. 12. 



HIGH SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY m 

into a course of study. Some selection is necessary: not 
all subject-matter and not all of any subject should be 
taught in the high school. This is true for four reasons. 

First, some of the subjects are taught in the grades and 
have no place in the high school. Among such subjects are 
writing and spelling. In so far as they have a place in 
the high school, it is because habits not yet fixed need to be 
trained. 

Second, there are legal objections to some subjects in 
certain countries, such as the teaching of religion in the 
public schools of the United States. 

Third, there are so many subjects that may be taught, 
that all cannot be handled in a four-year course in which 
the student may at most study only from thirty-two to 
forty of these for a half-year each. 

Fourth, as pointed out above, there are limitations to the 
active or potential needs of the adolescent. But this, how- 
ever, is not serious if attention is paid to fundamental 
subjects. A specialized subject, such as a foreign language, 
or any other subject taught from the point of view of the 
specialist, may not evoke interest, but a fundamental, such 
as metaphysics, even, taught from the popular standpoint, 
and its facts selected from a non-technical point of view, is 
of surpassing interest to that most inveterate of metaphysi- 
cians, the adolescent. 

Starting Points in Selecting. — The selection may begin 
from either of two directions. In the first place, the teacher 
may look over the whole field of racial experience, may 
view the whole "field of knowledge," and select from each 
of its great divisions subjects which are typical of those 
divisions. He will secure a list in which there will be a 
physical science, a biological science, some division of his- 
tory, some foreign language, some mathematical subject, 



112 METHODS OF TEACHING 

etc. In his selection from among the representatives of 
these fields he will, of course, be guided by the ability of 
the pupil to grasp them, and this extent, at least, will 
combine the two factors, racial subject-matter and the pupil. 

The advantages claimed for such a method of selection 
are, first, that it trains the pupils in the methods of investi- 
gation utilized in the -great departments of knowledge, 
methods so valuable that their possession by the race 
engenders justifiable pride. Second, by this acquaintance 
with the great fields of knowledge, the pupil frequently 
discovers new interests of which he had been hitherto un- 
conscious, interests so intense and persistent that his future 
occupation is sometimes determined by them. Third, 
whether it has such a distinct effect upon his life or not, 
this introduction to all fields of knowledge makes the pupil 
an all-rounded individual both in his information and his 
interests, and counteracts perpetually the narrowing in- 
fluence of a later specialized life occupation. 

However, in selecting subject-matter we may start in 
from the other end and begin with the needs of the pupils. 
The initial question is asked, What are the needs which 
high school pupils have and of which they may be made 
conscious? From among these the fundamental types are 
selected. Then the subjects are selected whose intrinsic 
functions are able to satisfy these needs. 

The advantages claimed for this method of selection 
are as follows : First, a strong motive is given to all work, 
since pupils, according to the assumption of the point of 
view, feel a deep interest in these fundamental problems 
and their solution. Second, not only is there a strong motive 
for the study of the subject, but the principles studied are 
understood better, since they deal with problems to which 
the students have already given some thought. Perhaps, 



HIGH SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY 113 

the thinking has not been either accurate or definite, but 
enough has been given to produce a familiar "feeling" in 
connection with the situation. Third, since the subjects 
studied will thus be connected with fundamental needs, and 
since fundamental needs are in the main closely related to 
fundamental types of conduct, the study of the subjects 
will directly influence practical conduct. 

The Net Result. — The question arises, Do we not come 
out at the same place by starting at either end ? By starting 
with the great types of subject-matter and selecting the 
most important, may we not define importance in terms of 
fundamental needs, saying that the most important are those 
which satisfy the most fundamental needs? And is that 
not exactly what we do when we select the fundamental 
needs first and select the appropriate subject-matter after- 
wards? 

The question, then, is whether relative importance among 
the fields of knowledge is determined by the same standards 
as is the relative importance among needs and interests. 

In the world of knowledge, the importance of a field is 
determined in actual practice, partly by the importance of 
the problem, but much more by the progress made in the 
solution of the problem. Among many important fields, 
that one has relatively greater temporary importance in 
which there has recently been "something doing." Even 
in universities which are not supported by the state, and 
thus are not subject to legal restrictions, science is com- 
monly considered by the average student or instructor to 
be more important than religion. To say, however, that 
science satisfies a more important need than does religion, 
would not be acknowledged by as great a preponderance of 
opinion. Importance is not a scientific matter. It is a 
matter of belief and feeling mixed with arguments. Hence, 



114 METHODS OF TEACHING 

in answer to the question, Entering from either end, do we 
eome out at the same place ? we may say, "Not necessarily." 

And as a matter of fact, we do not, in practice. Among 
the subjects which are required in a high school course of 
study are foreign language, algebra, and geometry. They 
are justified as being subjects about which everybody should 
know, representatives of two of the great fields of human 
thought. But they are in the course of study because of 
the innate conservative strain in the high school system — 
it is absurd to claim that they solve such fundamental needs 
that they should be required of everyone. 

Required Subjects and Electives. — In this chapter, then, 
it is proposed that we enter from the pupil's side and utilize 
the subject-matter as required in connection with his active 
needs and desirable potential interests. 

There are in a course of study two classes of subjects, — 
required and elective. These vary, but in the main they 
include, in practice, a minimum of three units of English, 
one each of algebra and geometry, and two of a foreign 
language. 

The principles upon which required and elective subjects 
may be determined are these : Those subjects should be 
required which handle problems and needs which every 
person, irrespective of occupation or individual bias, will 
have to solve and satisfy; those should be elective which 
appeal to the interests of individuals, because of tempera- 
ment or intended occupation. 

In the remainder of the chapter a few subjects will be 
suggested which seem to be of prime importance. The 
list is not necessarily complete, and the amount of time to 
be given to each is not determined. 

It has not been worked out in detail, because, when com- 
pleted, there is of necessity so much of opinion in the whole 



HIGH SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY 115 

proposition that a scientifically accurate list cannot be made. 
This list is given rather as an illustration of how the prin- 
ciples might be applied than as one whose details are beyond 
question. 

Section 3. Tentative List of Required Subjects 

The principle of selection for the list of required subjects 
is this: Those subjects which deal with fundamental prob- 
lems and needs with which each individual, irrespective of 
personal bias or occupation, has more or less to do. Pick 
out those subjects which a man, as a social being sur- 
rounded by others, will be helped by, and make them 
required. Let each pupil elect subjects that will fit him 
for business, for college, or for his own peculiar pleasure. 
Upon such a basis the following list of required subjects is 
presented : 

1. English Composition — unless well taught in the 

grades. 

2. Politics and Government ; for all pupils will be 

expected to vote, when the franchise is extended to 
women, they can with difficulty get the unbiased 
facts from the newspapers, which for the most 
part are partisan. 

3. Sociology — since preventive philanthropy, the rela- 

tions of capital and labor, prevention of crime, 
etc., are among our greatest modern problems. 

4. Art — including enough of architecture to build an 

unobjectionable house, enough of color apprecia- 
tion to decorate it fittingly inside and out, enough 
of landscape gardening to beautify the grounds, 
literature sufficient to appreciate the deepest emo- 
tions expressed in fitting terms, and of music to 
secure relaxation and enjoyment. 



n6 METHODS OF TEACHING 

5. Application of biology, chemistry, and physics to the 

problems of adulteration of foods, common animals 
and plants, electric bells, and other practical 
matters. 

6. Domestic science and art for women whether they 

will have to do their own housework or not, 
enough knowledge of adulteration and quality of 
textiles to enable them to avoid judging quality by 
price, enough knowledge of sewing and millinery to 
plan and make their own clothes, if necessary, etc. 

7. Physiology for young men and ior young women, in 

which will be taken up the problems of sex-hygiene, 
household sanitation, infection, contagion, etc., 
taught in segregated classes. 

8. Economics sufficient for business purposes, including 

the fundamental theories of money, credit and 
banking, distribution and consumption, taxation 
and transportation. 

9. American history for American schools, used as part 

of other subjects to give them background and 
systematically to give a clear idea of the evolution 
of our great American problems. 
It will be noted that this does not include either algebra, 
geometry or a foreign language. The reason for the omis- 
sion is that they do not cater to any fundamental needs. It 
does not include ethics because the writer believes that the 
values in that field can best be taught incidentally. 

Certain objectors will say that a little sociology or 
economics in the high school is dangerous because these are 
really subjects for adults. But in answer, first, almost every 
specialist makes the same claim about his own subject in 
the high school, and it is true if one wishes to teach a 
system of principles. 



HIGH SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY 117 

But it is not true if it is presented bit by bit in explana- 
tion of practical and familiar problems. Second, the pupils 
have to meet these problems and meet them squarely. Only 
a small proportion go to college, and if they do not get a 
knowledge of them in the high school they must pick it up 
for themselves. A half loaf is better than none. 

References for Class Reading 

"Hall, Adolescence, "Vol. 2, pp. I53-J59- 

De Garmo, Principles of Secondary Education, Vol. 1, pp. 27-52. 

Exercises 

1. Give five instances of where pupils with a distaste for 
algebra, Latin, literature, or physics finally become intensely 
interested in it. 

2. Can the average pupil be made interested in any 
subject under a good teacher? 

3. If a pupil can be made interested in a subject, is 
that sufficient reason for its being in the course of study? 
Why? 

4. What do you think of the statement that the adoles- 
cent is an inveterate metaphysician? 

5. What is the difference between science taught as 
popular and as a systematic science? 

6. Can laboratory work be done if the science is taught 
popularly? 

y. Can magazine articles be used in a subject taught 
from this point of view, without cheapening the course? 

8. What are the objections to the plan of required sub- 
jects as outlined here? 

9. Should a vocational subject be required? Why? 
10. What difficulties would arise from teaching politics 

and government in the high school? They are taught in 



Il8 METHODS OF TEACHING 

colleges as political science and no serious objection is made. 
Is the case different in the high school ? 

II. Should the university prescribe what subjects will be 
accepted for entrance, or should it accept anything that is 
well taught in the high school? 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE TEACHING OF SUBJECT-MATTER 

Section i. The Problem of Teaching 

We teach when we assist the learner to get control of 
some worthy value. This learner is interested in doing 
things. When he comes to a point where he needs assist- 
ance and asks for it, we teach him. But, in order to help 
him, we must know what he is doing, what terminology 
he uses, and what his attitudes and biases are. In other 
words, the teacher must not only know how to do things, 
but, in addition, must know the content of the experience 
of the one taught. A Frenchman can with difficulty teach 
an Italian in French words if the Italian knows no French. 
The Frenchman should speak in Italian. Children's mean- 
ings are almost as widely different from those of adults as 
French language is from the Italian. 

This makes evident at once the distinction between carry- 
ing on activities and teaching others how to carry them on. 
For instance, when the housewife proceeds to teach an 
untrained servant how to make bread, the process of teach- 
ing differs from the process of breadmaking in that the 
housewife, as teacher, has to translate what she does into 
terms of the experience of the one taught. We say ordi- 
narily that she has to make the servant understand. But 
this means that the making of bread has to be stated in 
terms of what the learner already knows. 

Difficulties. — That this is sometimes a difficult thing 

119 



120 METHODS OF TEACHING 

to do becomes evident when, in terms of the foregoing 
illustration, we think of the mistress endeavoring to teach 
an untrained domestic. The domestic either has very little 
content of experience; i. e., is ignorant, or she is so different 
from the mistress that the latter cannot get an understanding 
of what .she really does know and think. To illustrate 
further, take the case of the specialist in science who en- 
deavors to teach. He may be able to solve the problems 
of his laboratory with the greatest skill possible, but that 
does not necessarily mean that he can teach his methods 
with equal success, for the new element enters ; viz., that of 
translating his methods over into the content of the mind 
of the learner. 

It must be acknowledged that with many people who 
teach, the real problem of teaching does not arise. That is 
to say, they merely state the process by which they arrive 
at conclusions, if the problem is an intellectual one; or 
merely perform their methods, if the problem is a manual 
one, and make no effort to translate the thing they are 
doing into the experience of the learner. In this case one 
of three results follows. The learner may not at all 
grasp the teacher's method of doing things. Or, he may 
grasp it at once because the content of his experience is 
like that of the teacher. Or, after a process of hit-and-miss 
understanding, he may finally come to a point where his 
content is sufficiently like the teacher's to enable him to 
understand the teacher's methods. The teacher remains in 
his own world, and to the pupil is relegated the duty of 
coming into that world. 

This explains why the teacher who as a student was 
quick or brilliant is frequently less successful in the begin- 
ning of his professional career than is his companion to 
whom learning was a much more difficult process. The 



TEACHING OF SUBJECT-MATTER 121 

latter is nearer to and better understands the content and 
ability of the minds of his pupils. This also explains why 
the teacher with intellectual and emotional sympathy has 
an advantage over the teacher who cannot appreciate the 
standpoint of other people. The former has the habit of 
feeling with the pupil, the latter has the habit of living 
within his own world. Some teachers are born with an 
intuitive feeling for the standpoint of children, others have 
to achieve it by laborious effort, and still others fail to 
attain it. 

Section 2. Characteristics of Pupils 

Individual Differences. — That children differ one from 
another is a fact patent to any and all observers. These 
differences are the special pride of parents when discussing 
their offspring. Our system of uniform instruction in 
classes, however, tends to minimize these differences and 
to overemphasize the similarities. This tendency to teach 
children in mass as though they were all alike is almost 
irresistible. Yet the differences are great enough to deserve 
careful consideration. 

Thorndike has made an analysis of these differences be- 
tween individuals in his Principles of Teaching, pp. 68-98. x 
He finds that children differ in amount of specific abilities 
and that small differences are of greater frequency than 
larger ones. That is to say, in a well-graded class most 
of the children are close together in mental ability, but 
there are always some who are much better or much poorer 
than the average. "The worst error of teachers with re- 
spect to individual differences is to neglect them, to form 
one set of fixed habits for dealing with all children, to teach 
'the child' instead of countless different living individuals. 

1 Also, monograph on Individuality, 1911, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 



122 METHODS OF TEACHING 

To realize the varieties of human nature, the nature and 
amount of mental differences, is to be protected against 
many fallacies of teaching." 

The general mental constitution of pupils he finds to be 
of three loosely defined types — intellectual, emotional, and 
active. ''Given any situation, some children will tend to 
think it out, others to respond emotionally, and still others 
to do something. Propose to a class that instead of two 
sessions a day a single session lasting from nine till two be 
held. Some children will argue pro and con ; others will 
cry out, 'Oh, that will be fine T or, T don't like that at all' ; 
others will go to work to persuade their parents to vote in 
favor of one side or the other, will start petitions and the 
like." 

There are two intellectual types among children — those 
that work with ideas, and those that work with things. 
''Some children manage numbers, words, parts of speech, 
chemical symbols, and the like, but fail relatively in measur- 
ing boards, catching fish, cooking meats, or making toys. 
They are the idea thinkers. Others make little headway 
with their arithmetic, grammar, or text-book in chemistry, 
but succeed in the shop, the woods, and the laboratory. 
They are the thing thinkers. There is, however, no oppo- 
sition between these two types; indeed, a high degree of 
skill with ideas means a higher than average skill with 
things. Still, for practical purposes we can classify children 
by their special strength into these two groups." 

Some pupils are predominantly visualizers, others audiles, 
and still others motiles. This is very well illustrated in 
spelling. Some children remember spelling best by looking 
at the words. They have a visual picture of the letters. 
Others remember best the sound of the letters. Still others 
remember the correct spelling only after writing it out or 



TEACHING OF SUBJECT-MATTER 123 

a 

after spelling it to themselves, thus getting the muscular 
feel in the hand or in the vocal cords. 

Then, again, some pupils are impulsive, while others are 
very deliberate. "A teacher must not irritate the former 
by forever checking their natural tendency to jump at 
actions, or the latter by hurrying them on to what seem to 
them impossibly hasty decisions. Too vigorous opposition 
to their natural bent will only make the one class confused 
and sulky, and the other nervous and tearful. We must, 
by sympathetic and ingenious treatment, bring each toward 
the golden mean of action that is neither rash nor tardy. 

"As with all other capacities, there are wide differences 
between children in the degree of suggestibility. Ask Mary, 
'Why is your work so poor today? Have you a headache?' 
and in a half -hour Mary will be making more mistakes than 
ever, and will have a headache, whether she had one before 
or not. Ask Jane the same question in a similar situation, 

and the reply is a prompt, 'No, Miss . My head 

is all right. I just didn't study this much.' The means of 
allowing for and of utilizing these differences are either 
too obvious to need comment, or so dependent on ingenuity 
rather than principle as to be learnable only through 
practice. 

"Individuals may be graded into groups with respect to 
the speed, vigor, and range of their mental processes, on 
scales of quick to slow, intense to weak, and broad to 
narrow. Teaching must, of course, make allowance for 
these differences. Some first-rate thinkers are puzzled and 
discouraged by rapid questions or drills. Some children 
think and feel so intensely that they need the bit of calm- 
ness, humor, and relaxation rather than the spur of excite- 
ment or rebuke. Some children cannot think of more than 
one thing at a time, and are lost in a lesson if the teacher 



I24 METHODS OF TEACHING 

introduces side issues or comparative references which the 
broader-minded child follows easily. 

"Individuals may also be graded according to their mental 
balance, their ability to see things in proportion, to think 
and act with common sense. In little children these differ- 
ences are not so obvious as they become during the high- 
school age. At that period it is easy to recognize the lack 
of mental balance shown in complaints about teachers, 
irregularity in school work, the presence of eccentric notions, 
and inability to get on with parents. The lack of mental 
balance in parents themselves is, needless to say, one of the 
greatest obstacles in the teacher's path. 

"A practically important series of differences in tempera- 
ment concerns the qualities of hopefulness and suspicion. 
People, even as children, differ greatly in their expectation 
of success and satisfaction with what is, apart from any 
logical basis. Some always think their affairs are to turn 
out well, and think whatever they do or have or see is fine ; 
their clothes always fit them — mentally at least ; their lessons 
are always well done — in their opinion ; nothing can dis- 
turb their imperturbable satisfaction. They verge toward 
the delusions of grandeur found in the insane. At the 
opposite extreme are those who always have a grudge, 
who feel put upon, who are ready with a tale of injustice 
to them, who are sure the world is a hard place. In school 
they are forever apologizing, or sulking, or complaining; 
in perfect kindness they see some slight, in perfect health 
they find some flaw. These verge toward the delusions of 
persecution of the insane. Both groups need to learn to 
judge objectively by facts, not subjectively by their feelings 
about them." 

And finally, there are differences of attitude and ways of 



TEACHING OF SUBJECT-MATTER 125 

working due to sex which become apparent early in school 
life. 

All of the foregoing differences may be found in almost 
any group of children of the same grade in school, and 
they are important for the teacher to reckon with. It is not 
possible, of course, to fit the course of study to each one, 
since they must be handled to a great extent in mass, par- 
ticularly in large classes. But if the differences are known 
and utilized, the teacher is able, on the one hand, to fit 
the work more intelligently to the normal pupils, and, on 
the other, to deal sympathetically with those children who 
deserve and need special attention, either because they are 
brighter or slower than the majority. 

Genetic Differences. — But children differ as well from 
year to year. There is, of course, a very noticeable differ- 
ence between a six-month babe and that same babe twenty 
years later. 

If we could know definitely the general constitution of 
the minds of children in each of the grades of the elemen- 
tary and high schools, we should then be able to intelligently 
arrange our course of study so as to fit the dominant 
characteristic of each grade. If, for instance, we know 
definitely what instincts are dominant in the fourth grade, 
we would be able to know what sort of reading material to 
give, what approach to make to geography and history 
material, and what sort of industrial work to carry on. 

This is "a consummation devoutly to be wished'' but at 
present far from realization. Much work must yet be done 
before we have anything sufficiently definite to be relied 
upon. Several attempts have been made, but there is no 
body of reliable data at hand which will establish any one 
classification and refute the others. We need to have a 



126 METHODS OF TEACHING 

wide range of statistical observations and many intensive 
studies of individual children before the facts will be suffi- 
ciently numerous to establish any generalization. 

Available Instincts. — Pyle 1 says upon these points: "If 
we could make out a table showing the orderly appearance 
of the instincts and the periods of their dominance, we 
could then arrange the curriculum of the schools to corre- 
spond to these instinctive activities. But the matter is not 
simple. The time of first appearance of the various instincts 
varies much according to the reported observations, and 
their periods of dominance vary still more. The appearance 
of an instinctive action, even after the structures are ready 
for it, depends upon the appearance of the situation that 
normally calls forth the particular form of response. There 
is a variation of a year or two in the maturing of the 
structures that underlie the instincts. And even after the 
first appearance of an instinct, the future course is entirely 
dependent upon experience. An instinctive tendency may 
be early subdued, or it may be strengthened and perpetuated. 
The nearest we can come to a solution of the problem is to 
determine by statistical studies the time when, on the aver- 
age, an instinctive tendency is at its height, and in some 
cases this may be sufficiently definite to be of value to 
education. But only in a broad way can the instincts deter- 
mine the order of the curriculum. The individual, adaptive, 
and environmental instinctive tendencies are all operative 
when the child enters school, and can be depended upon to 
furnish motive and initiative. The social tendencies are 
also operative and grow in strength steadily till maturity. 

The fact is that other factors are more important in 
determining the arrangement of the curriculum. As far 
as his instincts are concerned, we may teach a six-year-old 

1 Outlines of Educational Psychology, pp. 246-7. 



TEACHING OF SUBJECT-MATTER 127 

boy about stars, bugs, flowers, weeds, stones, rivers, and 
mountains; and wise teaching doubtless teaches something 
about all these things from the beginning. Since the 
appearance is variable, and since the strength of instinctive 
tendencies is dependent upon experience, and therefore 
varies immensely for different individuals, the teacher will 
have to ascertain for each individual case what instinctive 
tendencies will function best to furnish initiative and motive, 
At any rate, the instincts will have to be taken into the 
laboratory and worked out with a great deal more care than 
has ever been used in their study before we can do any- 
thing more than indicated. However, it may be worth while 
to give in brief form the results of various studies of 
instincts and the emotive instinctive responses : 

Imitation. — First appearance, 59th day (reflex), 171st 
day (voluntary), Dearborn; in second half of first year, 
Kirkpatrick; 6th or 7th month, Baldwin; 15th week, 
Preyer; 237th day, Major; 4th month, Sully. Most 
prominent 4th to 7th year, Kirkpatrick. 

Play. — In the second quarter of first year, Kirkpatrick, 
Major, Shinn; 341st day, Dearborn. Normally, always 
operative later. 

Migrating. — First to 3rd or 4th year, Kline ; 2nd or 3rd 
year, Kirkpatrick; must be subdued by early adolescence 
or may become permanent tendency. 

Collecting. — Not later than the 3rd year, Burk ; in the 
2nd year, Kirkpatrick; at its height at 10, Burk. 

Construction. — Appears 9th month, Sully; 13th month, 
Tiedemann ; 14th month, Major. Interest in construction 
is prominent throughout school life, normally. 

Rivalry. — According to Kirkpatrick, appears in the 4th 
or 5th year. It may be relied upon to function throughout 
child-life. 



I2 8 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Sympathy. — Seventh and 8th month, Tracy; 12th month. 
Sully; 22nd month, Baldwin; 27th month, Major; 3rd 
year, Kirkpatrick. Later responses are largely due to 
experience and training. 

Pride. — Nineteenth month, Preyer. 

Fear. — First appears, 2nd month, Tracy and Shinn; 3rd 
month, Major; 4th month. Dearborn and Preyer; 7th 
month, Sully; 1st year, Kirkpatrick. Fear is greatest in 
3rd and 4th years, according to Kirkpatrick. 

Anger. — In young babies, Kirkpatrick; 10th month, 
Darwin and Preyer ; 2nd month, Perez. 

Curiosity. — Twenty-second week, Preyer. Under proper 
conditions, curiosity functions throughout school life." 

It will be seen from the above that all the important 
instinctive tendencies, except the socialistic, function nor- 
mally throughout the school life of the child. The strength 
of these tendencies depends upon the demands made upon 
them in the experience of the child. The older and more 
fundamental to the life of man the tendency, the more 
independent it is of experience. 

The teacher, then, has to make a careful study of his 
classes to see which of the instincts are functioning at their 
maximum, and upon that basis may arrange his course. 

For centuries chief reliance was placed upon curiosity 
and imitation, as a cursory study of the history of teaching 
very well shows. From the time of Froebel more use has 
been made of play, and lately constructiveness and the 
social instincts have begun to be utilized. An interesting 
fact about this swing of emphasis from one to the other 
is that the use of play and constructiveness does not cause 
teachers to discard curiosity and imitation. For, as was 
pointed out in the first chapter, when a new method is 
utilized, and even sometimes pushed to excess, in the end 



TEACHING OF SUBJECT-MATTER 129 

it does not supplant the older valuable methods, but takes 
its place beside them if it demonstrates its value. 

Because of their importance and their relative newness, a 
short explanation of the use and value of constructiveness 
and the social instinct will be well worth while. 

Constructiveness. — Until recently children have in 
school been assumed to be intellectual beings merely, 
and little stress has been laid upon their interest in con- 
structing things. 

"Some few years ago I was looking about the school 
supply stores in the city, trying to find desks and chairs 
which seemed thoroughly suitable from all points of view — 
artistic, hygienic, and educational — to the needs of the 
children. We had a good deal of difficulty in finding what 
we needed, and finally one dealer, more intelligent than the 
rest, made this remark : 'I am afraid we have not what 
you want. You want something for the children to work 
at ; these are all for listening.' That tells the story of the 
traditional education. Just as the biologist can take a 
bone or two and reconstruct the whole animal, so, if we 
put before the mind's eye the ordinary schoolroom, with 
its rows of ugly desks placed in geometrical order, crowded 
together so that there shall be as little moving room as 
possible, the desks almost all of the same size, with just 
space enough to hold books, pencils, and paper, and add a 
table, some chairs, the bare walls, and possibly a few pic- 
tures, we can reconstruct the only educational activity that 
can possibly go on in such a place. It is all made 'for 
listening' — for simply studying lessons out of a book is 
only another kind of listening; it marks the dependency 
of one mind upon another. The attitude of listening means, 
comparatively speaking, passivity, absorption; that there 
are certain ready-made results which are there, which have 



I3 o METHODS OF TEACHING 

been prepared by the school superintendent, the board, the 
teacher, and of which the child is to take in as much as 
possible in the least possible time." 1 

But with the realization of the fact that pupils are pre- 
dominantly interested in muscular activity in, at least, the 
early grades, several attempts have been made to so build 
the course of study that education shall come in part 
through building things. For, in order to build, it is neces- 
sary to learn arithmetic, to draw, to talk, and to think. 
Particularly is thinking better, because they think in term? 
of concrete cases which they understand, rather thar 
memorize abstract matter that is foreign to them. The 
methods used for doing this work are outlined later in 
Chapter XIV T , where descriptions are given and references 
cited for class reading. 

While most of the work attempted in the use of con- 
structive activities has taken it as a center in the lower 
grades, and while the typical American school has con- 
structive work in the higher grades in isolation from all 
other subjects, there is a very good opportunity at hand 
for using it not as a center or in isolation, but as illustra- 
tive material in the higher grades and the high school. The 
chief objection raised is that it takes too much time to have 
the pupils draw, use sand tables, make illustrations from 
wood, paper, and clay. But it ought not to be hard for a 
teacher to obviate this difficulty. 

A very good plan for doing this illustrative work in the 
sixth grade is to select one text, such as the history text 
for the grade. The teacher should run through the text 
and select those situations, events, and topics which are 
capable of easy illustration by drawing, wood, sand, clay, 

1 Dewey, The School and Society, pp. 43-4. 



TEACHING OF SUBJECT-MATTER 131 

or paper. Before the time for taking up a topic arrives, 
the teacher should consider the simplest way of having the 
illustrative material made. When the time arrives the illus- 
tration should be made simply and expeditiously with the 
idea in mind that it need be no better than is necessary for 
illustration. This latter point is of importance, because 
when pupils, and teachers, too, get interested in a sand 
representation of Dutch life and geography, they are usually 
obsessed with the desire to putter around, putting in little 
non-essential details which waste time and add nothing to 
the illustrative value of the work. To illustrate well, only 
outlines, sketches, so to speak, are necessary. 

Frequently different parts of the illustrative material can 
be assigned to different pupils. And if anything perma- 
nent is made it can be kept in the class "museum" for other 
children who come later. 

The Social Instinct and Group Work.— Another still 
later tendency is to have the pupils co-operate in groups. 
This is in opposition to the individualistic attitude of the 
traditional school which requires pupils to work by them- 
selves and to be held responsible for a lesson only to the 
teacher. The feeling at the basis of this attitude is that 
pupils will be likely to get too much assistance if they work 
together, and particularly the weak students will be injured. 
This feeling has, of course, some justification, and working 
in groups has to be safeguarded. 

However, the advantages of group work are great, as is 
shown in the work of Scott, whose account is full of 
human-interest stories. It is evident from his account that 
pupils can get great value from working together. His 
earlier experiments were carried on by allowing pupils to 
organize into groups to do anything they wished, subject 



I3 2 METHODS OF TEACHING 

to certain restrictions set by the teacher. An account of 
this, which cannot be summarized without ruining its value, 
is found in the reference at the end of this chapter. 

But he tried the experiment also later in regular class 
work in history, science, arithmetic, reading, language and 
literature, the manual arts, and the fine arts. The whole of 
his text from page 102 on should be read in detail by 
every student of methods of teaching. Here I shall describe 
briefly only the work done in history in the elementary 
school. 

Miss Lotta Clark, who carried on the experiment, says: 1 
"I talked the matter over with my classes and asked them 
how they would like to make the experiment of conducting 
their history lessons themselves. The novelty of the idea 
pleased them, and after considerable informal discussion 
we decided to carry on our recitations in the form of busi- 
ness meetings. ' A chairman was appointed from the class 
to take charge of the meeting, and there was something 
of a sensation when I exchanged chairs with him. He 
appointed committees to nominate candidates for a presi- 
dent, vice-president, and secretary. These officers were 
elected by ballot for one month, and their duties were de- 
cided upon by the class. We had an amusing time when 
they tried to decide what they ought to do with me. I told 
them I was going to do just as little as possible in the class, 
so that they could have all the time and opportunity there 
was. They finally decided to call me the 'executive officer,' 
with power to exercise full authority if necessity required. 

"The pupils carried on the recitation with the teacher in 
the background to see that all went well. But the impor- 
tant outgrowth of this was that one boy took upon himself 
to read books and bring in interesting illustrative material ; 

1 Scott, Social Education, pp. 150-156. 



TEACHING OF SUBJECT-MATTER 133 

a girl asked to contribute drawings — copies of pictures in 
books not available for the whole class ; another boy asked 
to use his camera to take photographs of Art Museum casts 
of characters in the history work." Says Miss Clark : "We 
did all these things and many, many more; and these sug- 
gestions led to the richest development of all in the work 
of this year. The classes formed themselves into little in- 
formal clubs, met at recess and after school, and decided 
what each would do to contribute something interesting to 
the lessons. There were the drawing clubs and the camera 
clubs, while the club that brought in pictures and newspaper 
clippings, and told interesting accounts which they had 
read, called themselves the Sidelights Club." 

Enough has been said to show the practicability of this 
plan by which the pupils take over the work of the class 
and the teacher works in the background, always interested, 
always alert, and constantly holding high standard of effort. 
This plan does for all subjects what is later pointed out in 
Chapter XV for language. If the pupils feel that they can 
contribute something to the class they will work harder just 
as adults do. The greatest handicap to effort is the feeling 
that what I know, the teacher knows and most of the other 
pupils know, so what's the use of saying anything. 

Strayer 1 gives two examples which are so interesting that 
they may be quoted : 

"In a class in nature study in a fourth grade a boy told 
a wonderful story of the activities of a squirrel. Ordinarily 
the teacher might have been expected to tell the boy that 
the story was untrue and that she did not want that kind 
of stories. In this class, however, the children felt responsi- 
ble for the contributions which were made. The story had 
no sooner been told than the narrator was plied with ques- 

1 A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, pp. 131-2. 



134 METHODS OF TEACHING 

tions. Where had he seen the squirrel? On what kind of 
a tree? What was the color of the squirrel? Just when 
did the events related happen? The boy could not answer 
these questions satisfactorily, and finally admitted that his 
story had a very slight basis in fact. The rebuke thus 
administered by his classmates probably did more toward 
giving this boy respect for truth than a dozen statements 
by the teacher that his contribution was unsatisfactory. 

"In an eighth-grade class the children were discussing the 
panic of 'j$. One of the boys maintained that the causes 
of panics were, in general, the same, regardless of the 
activities of a few individuals occupying important posi- 
tions in government or in the commercial world. His con- 
tention was mainly that it was unfair to charge a president 
or a political party with the distress occasioned by a panic, 
when in reality the cause was to be found in economic condi- 
tions over which neither president nor party had control. 
One of the girls in the class objected, and cited as proof 
the panic of '37, which she claimed was caused by President 
Jackson. The teacher could have settled the question imme- 
diately by an authoritative statement, which most classes of 
children would have accepted. In this class, however, the 
teacher encouraged the class to participate in the discussion. 
In the end the members of the class consulted text-books 
and other more complete histories, and reached their own 
decision with comparatively little help from the teacher. 
The value of this work in history consisted mainly in the 
fact that the children, having once discovered the problem, 
felt responsible for its solution. They were engaged in the 
liveliest kind of thinking and discussion. They were learn- 
ing where to go, and what materials to use in the solution 
of this kind of problem." 

The method is capable of infinite variation suited to the 



TEACHING OF SUBJECT-MATTER 135 

needs of an alert teacher. Children love to accept responsi- 
bility and to contribute things that are worth while to the 
class, or to the teacher, if they really feel that it is a con- 
tribution to the store of knowledge of the group. Such 
work relieves the monotony of the pouring in and giving 
back of the individual work of the traditional schoolroom. 
There is, of course, a very definite place for individual 
responsibility, and this needs to be felt by the pupil toward 
the teacher, but whenever it can be lightened and varied by 
the feeling of responsibility for contributing to the class and 
keeping up to standards set by the class, good work and 
increased interest is the beneficent result. 

Summary. — Children differ among themselves. The 
majority of the pupils in a well-graded class are practically 
equal in ability but some are always brighter and some 
slower. They differ in temperament, some being students, 
others strongly emotional, and still others practical. They 
are different, too, in their types of imagery, some being pre- 
dominantly visualizers, others motiles, and still others 
audiles. Then, again, girls differ from boys in ways of 
working. 

Children also differ from year to year as the instincts 
mature and the environment changes. Up to date, these 
changes have not yet been charted with sufficient accuracy 
to give the teacher definite information as to the maximum 
periods of each. It is, however, fairly well demonstrated 
that during school life all of the instincts are functioning 
and that appeal can be made to any of them subject to 
individual differences in pupils and to the unknown point of 
their maximum intensity. In particular, in present day 
school work, appeal is made to five: curiosity, imitation, 
play, constructiveness and co-operation. As a result each 
teacher needs to work out for himself his own scheme for 



136 METHODS OF TEACHING 

each individual class, or a more general one for all classes 
of a certain age. 

Section 3. The Culture Epoch Theory 

The Recapitulation and Culture Epoch Theories. — A 
very interesting attempt to mark off the periods of child- 
hood have been made in the recapitulation and the culture 
epoch theories. Both these theories claim that, from con- 
ception to maturity, man, before birth and after, passes 
through all the stages that the race has passed through in 
its evolution from the dawn of life on this planet. It is 
pointed out that the human ovum begins as a one-cell organ- 
ism and then passes through' foetal stages in which it can- 
not be readily distinguished from the foetus of fish, rep- 
tiles, birds, and mammals. 

It is carried further in asserting that after birth the child 
passes through the stages of civilization of the race. If the 
periods of racial development are (after Chamberlain) the 
rooting and grubbing stages, the hunting stage, the pastoral 
stage, the agricultural, and the commercial stage, then the 
theory claims that, in its general outlines, childhood passes 
through each of these stages. In the first stage the child 
uses the mouth as a criterion for everything ; in the second 
stage we find children fearing strangers, stalking imaginary 
game ; in the third is evidenced a fondness for pets and the 
desire to own things ; in the fourth foresight begins to 
develop and a passion for gardening arises ; and in the fifth 
come bulging pockets, demand for pay for service, recogni- 
tion of value and sense of arithmetic. 

The first of these stages extends to five years, reaching 
its culmination in the third year; the second extends from 
four to twelve years, with its highest development in the 
seventh year; the third period extends from nine to four- 
teen, with its greatest intensity in the tenth year ; the fourth 



TEACHING OF SUBJECT-MATTER 



137 



period from twelve to sixteen, with its maximum in the 
twelfth year; and the fifth from fourteen to forty, with its 
greatest intensity in the eighteenth to twentieth years. 1 

The culture epoch advocates seek, in addition to naming 
the stages of childhood by a recapitulation theory, to deter- 
mine what subject-matter should be in each period. Many 
classifications of stages are given by different writers. Of 
these Rein's scheme is interesting as showing the racial 
stages, the school years that correspond to them and the 
subject-matter to be studied (in the German Folk School). 2 



School 

Year 



Materials of Instruction 



General Character of 
Epochs 



1 1 Folklore and Fairy Tales 


Mythical and Heroic 
Mind 


2 | Robinson Crusoe 


3 


Sacred 

Patriarchs and 

Moses 


Profane 

Thuringian 

Tales 


4 


Judges and 
Kings 


Nibelungen 
Tales 


5 


Life of Christ 


Christianizing 

and Kaiser 

Period 


Mediaeval State build- 
ing 


6 | Life of Christ 


Kaiser Period 


Historic Mind 


7 | Paul 


Reformation 


Social and Political 

Development. Scientific 

and Philosophic Mind 


8 1 Luther 


Nationaliza- 
tion 



Criticism of Culture Epoch Theory. — The chief trouble 
with the culture epoch theory is that while it is a pretty 
theory it will not work. It is impossible to take a class of 
children and find these stages standing out in any definite 
way. In a very general way there may be some parallelism 
between the development of the race and of the child, but it 
is not sufficiently definite for the educator to use in building 
a course of study upon. 

For a fuller statement of the recapitulation and the cul- 
ture epoch theories and for a complete criticism, references 
at the end of this chapter have been given. 

1 Chamberlain, The Child, pp. 51-105. 

2 Van Liew, Year Book of Herb art Society, Vol. 1, p. 99. 



I3 8 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Section 4. The Teacher's Tools 
In translating his ways of acting into terms of his pupils' 
experience, the teacher has several tools that he can use. 

Necessity of Sympathy. — That there is need for both 
emotional and intellectual sympathy with the pupil is incon- 
trovertible. We have seen that knowledge grows by the 
reorganizing of experiences. Teaching is not a pouring-in 
process. Facts cannot be hypodermically injected. The 
teacher may think that he has performed such an operation, 
but he may rest assured that no matter what the fact means 
to him, its meaning to the pupil is determined by the facts 
which he already possesses, and by the relations which the 
new fact sets up with what he already knows. Even when the 
teacher thinks that he has translated his subject-matter into 
terms of the child's experience, he may find that a different 
meaning from that intended has been given. This calls to 
mind the case of the teacher who laboriously endeavored to 
make clear the nature of a volcano by building up a cone of 
sand upon the sand table, and having made it realistic by 
lighting some decapitated firecrackers in an aperture at the 
top, rested content with his illustration. His feeling of com- 
plete defeat may be imagined when the next day one of his 
little boys said, ''Please, teacher, may we have some more 
of the fireworks today?" 

The concept of apperception emphasizes this same fact. 
Whatever may be its shortcomings, it has succeeded ad- 
mirably in showing us that new ideas are interpreted in 
terms of old, that nothing absolutely new can be added to 
experience like potatoes to a bin, but that each idea appre- 
hended must be apprehended in terms of what is already 
present, even though on that account wrongly apprehended. 
For a good little monograph on this subject, read Rooper's 
Pot of Green Feathers. 



TEACHING OF SUBJECT-MATTER 139 

This necessity is further emphasized when we reflect that 
the inexperienced teacher is farther removed from the child's 
standpoint than is the average individual. The teacher is 
highly intellectualized ; he is a student of books ; he has the 
habit of analyzing his ways of thinking and acting, and of 
performing this analysis in a highly abstract way. His vo- 
cabulary is generally literary and scientific ; his world is 
scholarly. The average individual, on the other hand, is 
concrete in his thinking, he has an unscientific vocabulary, 
he thinks in empirical terms. The teacher, therefore, must 
make greater deliberate effort to get on the level of his 
pupils than would the average individual. He must at times 
deliberately step out of his own world and enter that of 
the child if the latter is to be led back with him into his 
larger world. 

What we have been saying applies to the teaching process 
in general. The preacher who teaches religious truths, the 
political campaigner who convinces his audiences, the father 
who explains facts and principles to his child, the merchant 
who shows the new clerk what to do, the musician who 
touches the hearts of the people, all must translate the thing 
they wish to teach over into the experience of those whom 
they are trying to teach. 

Introspection. — In spite of the wide gap between the 
experience of the adult teacher and that of the child, the 
most fruitful source to which the teacher can turn is his 
own experience. When the teacher is trying to foresee the 
difficulties that the child will meet in grasping the problem 
upon which he is bent, and to forearm himself with methods 
for removing those difficulties, he is forced in the last analy- 
sis to consider what he himself finds to be the difficulties. 
If he is to teach problems in arithmetic he studies them 
with a view to finding out what are the crucial points — 



I4 METHODS OF TEACHING 

the points that are likely to give difficulty to the pupils ; and 
in doing this he has no other recourse than to his own ex- 
perience, unless it be to the recollection of the difficulties 
that former pupils have had. And again, in determining 
the best way of explaining the difficulties to the children 
from among various methods which may suggest them- 
selves, he makes choice according to standards of clearness 
and simplicity as set up by his own mind. 

This, of course, implies that in his introspection he imag- 
ines himself, as well as he can, to be in the pupil's place, 
with the pupil's standpoint and degree of development. In 
other words, in this introspection he examines his child self 
rather than his adult self. 

The same principle applies in discipline. When the teacher 
has a problem in discipline, and is seeking for the best way 
of handling it, he again appeals to his own experience, and 
particularly to his child self. He considers the question, — 
Does this plan that I am about to follow appeal to me as 
fair? Would it have helped me into the proper attitude 
toward some one in authority over me when I was a child ? 
Would it have produced the proper results upon me if tried 
by some one else? In other words, the value of sympathy 
to the teacher is essentially that of being able to make his 
experience congruous with the pupil's in order that by 
introspection he may decide what, to his congruous experi- 
ence, seems the most satisfactory thing to do. This ability 
to vividly recall childhood in all its phases and sentiments 
and little judgments is admirably presented in the early 
part of David Coppcrficld. 

Psychology. — Another aid wmich has been overrated 
by some and underrated by others is psychology. This 
subject aids the teacher because it gives a scientific account 
of the ways in which experience operates in securing effi- 



TEACHING OF SUBJECT-MATTER 141 

ciency. It is important because it is scientific. It aids 
untrained introspection by helping it to see the great and 
fundamental processes that operate in experience. A 
teacher is unwise if he pays no attention to it, because it is 
clearly evident from the long history of psychology that 
no one man, even of commanding intellect, is able unaided 
to discover all these processes. A great army of men have 
spent their lives investigating these things and giving a 
scientific account of them. And no teacher with the multi- 
tudinous duties of the schoolroom to hamper him, is able 
to get without help as clear a conception of the working 
of the mind as he can get by utilizing the fruit of their 
labors. If he does not use it, it is as though he kept his 
capital idle instead of investing it. Moreover, psychology 
will give him certainty that he is not setting up artificial 
aims, and that he is not using ineffectual and perverting 
methods. 

Psychology has three fields which are of value to the 
teacher : First, general psychology, which treats of the 
mental processes of the normal adult; second, educational 
psychology, wdiich applies the principles of other branches 
of psychology to educational problems ; and third, genetic 
psychology, which treats of the growth of the content and 
processes of experience. The chief merit of genetic psy- 
chology is that it emphasizes the fact that at different ages 
the child has a different content of experience, is dominated 
by different interests, and possesses varying fineness and 
persistence of activity. 

Theory of Method. — Another aid in solving the prob- 
lems of teaching is found in a study of the methods of 
teaching. Essentially, a study of teaching is reflection 
upon the way that subject-matter grows and organizes 
itself. It differs from psychology in that, while psychology 



I4 2 METHODS OF TEACHING 

treats of the child in terms of the processes of experience, 
such as memory, imagination, etc., methods of teaching deal 
with the ways in which the child gets control of subject- 
matter. For pedagogical purposes they both deal with 
the same great problems and are closely interrelated, being 
two aspects of the same thing, but differing in the point of 
view from which each is studied. The great problems of 
the theory of method are essentially those of the organiza- 
tion of racial subject-matter, of getting the child to start 
to work upon subject-matter, getting him to organize 
his subject-matter, and of applying these organizations to 
the handling of other units of subject-matter. And, as we 
have said, in working upon these problems the teacher re- 
flects upon his own methods of organization, upon the way 
in which racial subject-matter is organized, and, finally, 
studies, by means of practical experience, the ways in which 
subject-matter is organized in the experience of everybody, 
especially children. As a result of this reflection he arrives 
at the principles of pedagogy and methods of teaching. 

Practical Experience. — All the aids that we have men- 
tioned may be well in hand before any practical teaching 
has been engaged in. They are part of the equipment with 
which professional schools should provide the teacher. But 
let the inexperienced teacher try as he will, he is sometimes 
unable to build up within himself an experience in harmony 
with that of his pupils. The difficulties which he imag- 
ines, may be only a few of the many difficulties which the 
child may have. The method of explanation which seems 
perfectly obvious to him may be turgid to his pupils. The 
methods of discipline which seem fair to him may to the 
child seem unfair ; even his child self may be too mature 
to approximate very closely to the pupil's experience. More- 



TEACHING OF SUBJECT-MATTER 143 

over, his study of psychology may have given him a knowl- 
edge of the principles of psychology without giving him a 
knowledge of their peculiarities of combination in indi- 
vidual children, and his principles of pedagogy and methods 
of teaching may be merely principles and methods which, 
so far as he is concerned, have yet to be tried on in actual 
practice. He has not as yet met the child on his native 
heath ; he has verified the principles which he has accepted 
merely by an appeal to his own experience, or by an appeal 
to the records of child experience contained in books. He 
has, therefore, many problems to work out before he can 
translate his experience, his knowledge of the world, and his 
attitude toward life, over into the experience of the chil- 
dren who now, for the first time, are actually before him. 
At this point practical experience enters as the last aid in 
helping him solve this problem. 

Practical experience is of so much importance that some 
have claimed that it is the most important factor in the mak- 
ing of a teacher. But in considering this statement we 
have to distinguish clearly between empirical and scientific 
experience. By empirical experience we mean that acquaint- 
ance with teaching which is picked up by the teacher in a 
naive way. By scientific experience we mean that experi- 
ence which is secured in actual teaching when the teacher is 
armed with the principles and the theories of teaching which 
enable him to interpret what is taking place, and to react to it 
according to the fundamental ways of acting which his 
principles provide for him. We cannot, therefore, make 
the broad assertion that practical experience is the most 
important aid to the teacher. Empirical experience may be 
a positive detriment to him, as any teacher in a normal 
school or teachers' college can testify. But such is not the 



144 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



case with scientific experience. Its assistance is powerful ; 
it throws light upon the teacher's psychological principles, 
and gives content and meaning to his theories of teaching. 

References for Class Reading 
Strayer. Brief Course in the Teaching Process, pp. 15-27. 
On Stages of Child Life: 

Chamberlain. The Child, pp. 54-64. 
Dopp. The Place of Industries in Education, pp. 104- 171. 
Kirkpatrick. The Individual in the Making, pp. 55-60. 
On the Culture Epoch Theory: 

Bolton. Principles of Education, pp. 108-118; also pp. 

63-107. 
Van Liew. Hcrbartian Year Book. Vol. I, pp. 78-103. 
Dewey. Hcrbartian Year Book. Vol. 2, pp. 89-95. 
Baldwin. Mental Development in the Child and in the 

Race, pp. 17-35. 
Montgomery. The Analysis of Racial Descent in Ani- 
mals, pp. 189-194. 
On Individual Differences: 

Thorndike. Principles of Teaching, pp. 68-98. 
On the Constructive Instinct : 

Dewey. The School and Society, pp. 43-65. 
On the Social Instincts : 

Scott. Social Education, pp. 102-115, 150-156. 
Strayer. A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, pp. 
129-138. 

Exercises 

1. Give five examples outside of school in which experts 
were poor teachers. 

2. Classify twenty of your friends on the basis of tem- 
perament — intellectual, emotional, and practical. Do any 
of the cases overlap? 



TEACHING OF SUBJECT-MATTER 145 

3. Study your own imagery to see whether you are an 
audile, a visualizer, or a motile. 

4. The women of the University of Missouri have been 
found, for the last three years, to lead the men in ranking 
in scholarship. How do you account for this difference? 

5. Study a boy or girl of your acquaintance and deter- 
mine to which instincts you could best appeal. Check up 
your investigation by determining whether it would be prac- 
ticable and wise to do so. Avoid a superficial observation of 
some one instinct. 

6. If you discard desks "made for listening," what 
sort of practicable furniture would you substitute? 

7. What form does constructiveness take in the high 
school ? 

8. Can the social instinct be used in high school classes 
with advantage ? Illustrate your answer pro or con. 

9. Give instances within your own experience of good 
group work in the grade, of group work that was a fail- 
ure, and state the essential differences between the cases 
that caused success or failure. 

10. Criticize the culture epoch course of study given in 
the table and that referred to in Bolton. 

n. Give five instances of failure in handling pupils be- 
cause of failure to understand them. 

12. What advantage in handling boys has the teacher 
who, as a girl, was a tom-boy? 



CHAPTER IX 

MOTIVE 

Section i. Interest 

Definition of Motive. — The problems of teaching are 
discussed in cycles. Twenty years ago drill was the favorite 
topic of discussion, ten years ago we were studying the. 
developing method and interest, today the current theme 
is motivation. 

Motivation, however, is a full brother to interest. But it 
is not identical with this subject because it involves new 
elements in the situation, the need and the problem. Where 
formerly we asked, How does interest work in education? 
we now ask in addition, What effect has a feeling of need 
upon learning? and, What is the use of the problem in 
teaching? Interest, need and problem are all forms of 
motive. 

The term "motive" is best defined by its generic meaning. 
It is derived from the Latin verb moveo, motum, and means 
that which moves one. A motive, then, is something which 
moves one to action. It is, as Dewey incidentally remarks, 
a motor. It is something that drives, impels, forces, and 
incites the individual to perform action. 

The problem of this and succeeding chapters is, in brief, 
that of describing these various forms of motive (interest, 
need, and problem) in such a way as to show how they 
arise and operate. 

Interest and Values. — The pupil is constantly attempt- 

146 



MOTIVE 



147 



ing to control values. If he builds a kite to fly, if he works 
arithmetic in order to finish it, if he reads a story to see 
what happens to the hero, he is trying to control values. 

In controlling these values the pupil utilizes his own 
activity. In fact, he may be said to be a bundle of activi- 
ties. Formerly we thought of him as a granary in which 
were stored up grains of facts, or as a pitcher made to 
hold water or dust and cobwebs. But the modern concep- 
tion considers the pupil, not as a receptacle, but as a living, 
moving, active organism. He is always doing something, 
either with his hands or his mind. Thinking, feeling, willing 
are all forms of his activity. He has moral, social, physical, 
aesthetic activity, and the result is always development. 
The pupil is never inactive because for him there is no 
such thing as inaction. That which is called inaction is 
action not along the line some one else wants. The inactive 
pupil in the schoolroom is actively engaged in some line of 
thought ; we call him inactive because he is not interestedly 
engaged in the lesson of the moment. 

This activity which is the all-in-all of the pupil has cer- 
tain predilections to and predispositions toward the direction 
it takes. Generally it likes to play a game; frequently it 
hates to hold a hoe handle and chop weeds. Sometimes in 
one pupil it likes to work arithmetic; in another this may 
be disliked. In other words, the pupil has biases. Some 
of these are born with him, are instinctive and innate. He 
is instinctively interested in games, in making things, and 
in being with other people, but the vast majority of his pre- 
dilections are acquired. We call these predilections or pre- 
dispositions interests. 

Characteristics of Interest. — Interest has in the first 
place feeling. It has the feeling that accompanies absorp- 
tion. It is a feeling of worth. As Dewey says, "The root 



148 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



idea of the term [interest] seems to be that of being engaged, 
engrossed, or entirely taken up with some activity because 
of its recognized worth." 1 

This feeling is probably always pleasurable. Deep en- 
grossment in any activity, as, for example, in building a 
box, in playing a game of whist, or in reading a fascinating 
story, is always pleasurably toned.- Titchener lays stress 
upon the fact that interest is a feeling when he defines it 
as the feeling side of attention. 

In the second place, interest is dynamic. This is at once 
clear since an interest is the feeling toward a particular form 
of activity — that toward which we are predisposed. If a 
pupil is interested he tries to accomplish the valued plan, 
he attempts to possess the desired object, and endeavors to 
make the coveted article. Interest is a motor, collecting his 
activity and converting it into power which turns the wheels 
of his mind and materializes the patterns designed. If the 
motor fails to work, all the power stored in the reservoirs 
of his experience are absolutely incapable of turning a wheel. 

In the third place, interest always has an object. That is, 

1 Dewey, Interest in Relation to Will, p. 13. 

- Even in such a case as interest in an aching tooth the same is 
true. There are thrusts of pain, and efforts to use a cure all, haste 
to reach the dentist, observation of his deliberate selection of forceps, 
the pressure of the steel under the gums, the laceration, the fiendish 
probings and the final crunch and twist. In such a case it would 
seem that interest could not be pleasurably toned. Yet in this 
extensive series of actions which take a long time and which, 
looked upon as a whole, is anything but pleasant, what we really 
have is a series of situations in which we actually feel interest and 
interspersed among a series in which we feel pain rather than 
interest. We feel the throb of pain, we get interested in locating it 
and forget the pain for a second. In this locating there is satis- 
faction, again comes the throb, and a rush for the liniment, in which 
some satisfaction follows the pain. The point is that interest is 
staccato in this case and that we must not confuse the unpleasant 
total with the intermittent neutral overtones of interest, which are 
forgotten when we think about the whole experience. 



MOTIVE 149 

we are interested always in something. The activity of the 
pupil is going some where, is directed at some object. Often 
it is misdirected. Sometimes a group of children will bob 
up and down in their seats, wildly waving the right hand, 
snapping fingers, then alternating to the left hand still 
wildly snapping while the teacher is leading in the excite- 
ment. The observer as he watches the lesson progress may 
feel that there is great interest. Another more cynical ob- 
server may say that it is interest directed at nothing because 
the class is getting nowhere. As a matter of fact, the second 
observer may be right in saying that the class is getting 
nowhere, for the interest of the class has run amuck. But 
in running amuck they run somewhere. They are inter- 
ested in each question of the teacher, in snapping their 
fingers, in keeping a "correct" position in spite of snapping 
digits. The only trouble is that these objects of interest 
are not organized. They are in confusion because they 
have no leader to help them get interested in things which 
are connected in such a way that, when the lesson is over, 
a definite step forward will have been made. 

Degrees of Interest. — Interest, like values, (p. 18) dif- 
fers in intensity. It may be very mild. In eating three 
meals a day some people have enough interest to eat them, 
but little beyond. Most matters of routine evoke only this 
mild sort of interest, and probably ninety per cent of an 
average adult's time is spent in doing things of minimal 
interest. Children, however, put more intensity into a 
larger percentage of their time and some people put more 
interest into everything they do than do others. It is a case 
of the intense versus the neutral temperament. 

On the other hand, interest may be very intense. The 
absent-minded person is one who is so intensely interested 
in what he does that he is unable to pay attention to anything 



150 METHODS OF TEACHING 

else. "The artist is the man above all others to whom 
routine is utterly delightful, not because it is easy, not be- 
cause it fosters the caprices of his indolence, but because 
it calls into action the very best of the man himself." 
Children display a like abandon in things which interest. 
Many a boy will spend hours working earnestly upon a 
tricky problem in algebra, or upon the construction of a 
sled, in teaching his dog a trick, or in reading a tale of 
blood and fury. * 

Between these two extremes lie all degrees of interest. 
But, as Bolton, remarks, 1 "the greater the amount of inter- 
est the better. No one ever accomplished much in any 
direction until he gave himself to his task body and soul. 
The scriptural injunctions 'Whatsoever thy hand findeth to 
do, do it with thy might' and 'Thou shalt love the Lord thy 
God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all 
thy mind, and with all thy strength,' etc., contain the key 
to the secret of success. It is not advocated here that work 
should be made disagreeable. Even though a given occupa- 
tion may seem dreary, exhausting, irksome, the whole of 
which this unit is a part, should be of absorbing interest. 
The end to be attained should be so alluring that no amount 
of disagreeableness could drive us away." 

Kinds of Interest. — There are several classifications 
of interest. James gives two kinds — native and acquired. 
He says: 2 "Now, some situations appeal to special instincts 
from the very outset, and others fail to do so until the 
proper connections have been organized in the course of the 
person's training. We' say of the former set of objects or 
situations that they are interesting in themselves and orig- 

1 Bolton, Principles of Education, p. 673. 

2 James, Talks to Teachers, n. 91 



MOTIVE 151 

inally. Of the latter we say that they are natively unin- 
teresting, and that interest in them has first to be acquired.'' 

McMurry gives two — direct and indirect. He says i 1 ''It 
is customary also to speak of direct and indirect interest ; by 
the former being meant the real thing, by the latter a reflec- 
tion or borrowed light. Direct interest is felt in the thing 
itself for its own sake and indirect interest points to some- 
thing else as the real source. A miser loves gold coins for 
their own sake, but most people love them only because of 
the things for which they may be exchanged." 

Dewey and others classify interest as immediate and me- 
diate. Dewey says : 2 "There are cases where self-expression 
is direct and immediate. It puts itself forth with no thought 
of anything beyond. The present activity is the only ulti- 
mate in consciousness. It satisfies in and of itself. The end 
is the present activity, and so there is no gap in space nor 
time between means and end. All play is of this immediate 
character. All purely aesthetic appreciation approximates 
this type. The existing experience holds us for its own 
sake, and we do not demand of it that it take us into some- 
thing beyond itself. With the child and his ball, the amateur 
and the hearing of a symphony, the immediate engrosses. 
Its value is there, and is there in what is directly 
present. * * * 

"On the other hand, we have cases of indirect, transferred, 
or, technically, mediated interest. That is, things indiffer- 
ent, or even repulsive in themselves, often become of interest 
because of their assuming relationships and connections of 
which we are previously unaware. Many a student, of so- 
called practical make-up, has found mathematical theory, 

1 McMurry, Elements of General Method, pp. 88-9. 

2 Dewey, Interest as Related to Will, pp. 15-16. 



152 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



once repellent, lit up by great attractiveness when he studied 
some form of engineering in which this theory was a neces- 
sary tool. The musical score and the technique of finger- 
ing, in which the child can find no interest when it is pre- 
sented as an end in itself, when it is isolated, becomes fasci- 
nating when the child realizes its place and bearings in help- 
ing him give better and fuller utterance to his love of song." 

Dewey's and McMurry's classification involve the same 
facts with different names. Immediate interest would in- 
clude all of James' native and some of the acquired. In the 
text we shall use the terms immediate and mediate meaning 
by immediate interest that interest found in activity that is 
of value in itself, and by mediate interest that which accom- 
panies activity carried on solely because it will give control 
of some other value. 

What Is of Immediate Interest? — If a teacher could 
tell in advance what is of immediate interest to children he 
would have his problems of motive three-fourths solved. 
But, as Angell says, "in the main we cannot say in advance 
of the actual test with each individual whether an object 
will call out an emotion or not. The peculiarities of personal 
constitution, the vicissitudes of personal history, the reigning 
mood — these and a thousand other factors may all enter in 
to modify the reaction." 1 

There are, however, a number of classes of objects which 
are likely to be of immediate interest. They may not prove 
interesting but the chances are in their favor, 
(i) Objects and situations that call for the instinctive ac- 
tions are usually immediately interesting. Playing, 
making objects, such as mud-pies and sand-heaps, run- 
ning machinery, and eating, evoke the spontaneous in- 

1 Angell, Psychology, pp. 421-2. 



MOTIVE 153 

terest of children of one age or another. Elaboration 
is not necessary. 

(2) Moving objects usually attract the attention spontane- 
ously. Throughout the history of the race these mov- 
ing objects — the leap of an animal, the movement of an 
enemy — have had such a close bearing upon life that 
the tendency to watch and become absorbed in them is 
strong. 

(3) The concrete and objective is more likely to be of imme- 
diate interest to children because probably so much can 
be done with them. At any rate those concrete objects 
which are used take on a value and interest of their own. 

(4) Among concrete objects, those that appeal to the senses 
evoke spontaneous interest from children, bright pic- 
tures, loud noises, jingles, smooth objects, action songs, 
usually appeal at once. "Novel things to look at or rare 
sounds to hear, especially when they involve the spec- 
tacle of an action of a violent sort, will always attract 
the attention from abstract conceptions of objects 
verbally taken in. The grimace that Johnny is making, 
t»he spit-ball that Tommy is ready to throw, the dog- 
fight in the street, or the distant fire-bells ringing — 
these are the rivals with which the teacher's powers of 
being interesting have incessantly to cope." 

(5) The new, if it is in line with the immediate interests of 
the children, is likely to evoke that interest. A new 
problem in arithmetic, a new doll, a new dress, a new 
reading lesson — will all be of immediate interest if the 
children are interested in those sorts of things. If they 
are not, the new object will call forth no spontaneous 
interest. 

(6) Familiar situations evoke immediate interest, some- 
times, when absences have occurred. But in the main. 



I54 METHODS OF TEACHING 

familiarity is less likely to elicit interest than is novelty. 
Children sometimes love old stories best but not often 
and then only because the sensations accompanying the 
recital are forgotten and the story comes as a new 
one and because they would rather have a good old 
story than run the chances of a poor new one. 
However, as stated above, while these different classes 

of things run a good chance of evoking immediate interest, 

there is no guarantee that they will do so. 

Section 2. Conditions Giving Rise to Mediate Interest 

In school as in life, there are a vast number of objects and 
situations which in themselves are of no interest but which 
under other conditions secure a borrowed interest in them- 
selves. This transfer is of prime importance and it is our 
purpose to examine into the nature of these conditions. 

No definite statement of methods is given. James says i 1 
"Any object not interesting in itself may become interesting 
tii rough becoming associated with an object in which an 
interest already exists. * * * An idea will infect 
another with its own emotional interest when they have be- 
come both associated together into any sort of a mental 
total. * * * Associate the new [objects] zvith the old 
[objects of interest] in some natural and telling way, so that 
the interest, being shed along from point to point, finally 
suffuses the entire system of objects of thought. This is the 
abstract statement; and, abstractly, nothing can be easier 
to understand. It is in the fulfilment of the rule that the 
difficulty lies ; for the difference between an interesting and 
a tedious teacher consists in little more than the inventive- 
ness bv which the one is able to mediate these associations 

1 Op. cit., pp. 94, 96. 



MOTIVE 



155 



and connections, and in the dulness in discovering such tran- 
sitions which the other shows." 

The method here may be summed up in a sentence: 
Associate new objects with old objects of interest in a natural 
and telling way. But the question the teacher needs to 
know is how to associate in a natural and telling way. 

McMurry has a statement similar to James, when he says : l 
"There are many facts in each branch of study which, in 
themselves, excite little or no interest, just as there are many 
details in a man's business which, in themselves, are only 
tedious. All of these facts may acquire a secondary inter- 
est by close association with interesting things with which 
they are brought into relation." 

However, this latter author lays his chief emphasis upon 
direct or immediate interest and so has little concern in 
working out the methods of securing mediate interest. This 
seems to be the case from a foregoing quotation which 
gives a fair view of his attitude as stated in The Elements 
of General Method.' "It is customary also to speak of 
direct and indirect interest; by the former being meant the 
real thing, by the latter, a reflection or borrowed light 
(p. 88)." He says that these indirect interests need to be 
carefully scrutinized by the teacher because "they often 
serve as a blind to conceal most hateful qualities in the 
development of character." He adds they are "vital to suc- 
cess only when they follow in the path of strong and genu- 
ine interests." Finally, "the kind of interest which we 
think is so valuable for instruction is direct and intrinsic. 
It reaches down into those spontaneous and instinctive forces 
in child life out of which all strong activity must spring." 
(p. 92.) 

It seems to the writer that the storm of criticism that 
1 Elements of General Method, p. 91. 



156 METHODS OF TEACHING 

has assailed the doctrine of interest set forth by the Her- 
bartians is chiefly caused by the tendency to underemphasize 
the place of mediate interest. 

Dewey says: "In reality the principle of 'making things 
interesting' means that subjects shall be selected in relation 
to the child's present experience, powers and needs ; and 
that (in case he does not perceive cr appreciate the rele- 
vancy) the teacher shall present the new material in such a 
way as to enable the child to appreciate its bearings, its 
relationships, its necessity for him.'' 

f Ruediger uses another term 1 which is not analyzed. He 
says, following James : "The pedagogical principle involved 
may be stated as follows : Begin with a native interest, or 
an interest already acquired, and graft upon it the new thing 
you wish to teach. If this is skillfully done, the original 
interest will radiate to the new thing taught, but it requires 
native skill, tact, as well as psychological knowledge, to apply 
the principle." Here the method is to graft the one on the 
other, but the method is left to the native skill and psycho- 
logical knowledge of the teacher. 

References for Class Reading 
Bolton. Principles of Education, pp. 672-674. 
Dewey. Interest as Related to Will. pp. 12-18. 
James. Talks to Teachers, pp. 91-99. 
McMurry. Elements of General Method, pp. 84-93. 
Thorndike. Principles of Teaching, pp. 51-59. 

Problems 

1. Name a half-dozen phrases used in education which 
imply that the pupil is a receptacle. 

2. Give five cases in which superficial inaction was 
really intense activity along other lines. 

1 Ruediger, The Principles of Education, pp. 20-4-5. 



MOTIVE 157 

3. Give five examples of where children do difficult 
things because of interest in them. 

4. Does it do any good to have pupils perform tasks 
that have little interest for them? In answering this ques- 
tion name five such tasks as examples about which to discuss 
the questions. 

5. What is the value to teaching of the fact that interest 
may be attached to objects? 

6. Give five cases of great superficial interest in a 
schoolroom where there was little interest in the problem of 
the lesson. 

7. Give two personal instances of the greatest interest 
you have ever felt in any situation. 

8. Give five examples of minimal interest. 

9. Is it your observation that adults have more or 
less intensity of interest than children? In everything? In 
particular things? Which is the longer sustained? 

10. Name ten things that are of immediate interest to 
you. 

11. Name ten that would have no interest were it not 
that they are of use to you. To what use do you put each? 

12. Give five cases in which moving objects are not of 
interest. Is it true in your case that they usually are? 



CHAPTER X 

MOTIVE— (Continued) 
Section i. Need 

Specific Examples. — When we come to consider the 
method by which the connection is made between the immer 
diate interests and objects without immediate interest, and 
investigate the method of securing this derived interest, the 
point of view elaborated earlier in the text will assist. And 
a few illustrations from practical life will serve to intro- 
duce the method. 

A life insurance agent tried for two years to interest a 
"prospect" in a policy and uniformly failed. Then the 
man married. He sought out the agent and bought a 
policy. 

I once had a private pupil sixteen years old whom I 
tried to get interested in blacking his shoes and combing his 
hair, but without success. One day, a month after I ceased 
my ministrations upon his personal appearance, I saw him 
on the street with not only his hair combed and shoes shined, 
but with his trousers pressed. I tactfully inquired about 
the transformation and found that he had in the meantime 
met the lady of his choice who had spoken to him about 
the matter. 

The wealthiest correspondence school in the country en- 
rolls men who, while in the public schools, had no interest 
in the subjects for instruction in which they now pay large 
fees. 

15S 



MOTIVE 159 

Tommy, playing with the boys, is called home by his 
father, but shows no interest. The father says, 'Tommy, if 
you don't come home, you will get no supper." He be- 
comes interested at once. 

Analysis of Need. — In these cases, mediate interest 
comes because first the individuals recognized some value — 
the young husband wished to protect his wife, the youth 
to please his sweetheart, the students to succeed in their 
chosen work, and Tommy to eat a square meal. These 
were, in each case, things of immediate interest. Second, 
they recognized that they did not have control of these 
values. The husband had no protection for his wife, the 
youth's sweetheart had spoken disparagingly of his personal 
appearance, the students felt their lack of knowledge and 
training, and Tommy believed his father when he threatened. 
Third, they realized that the way to control values was to 
do this thing in which they had not previously been inter- 
ested. The husband bought the policy, the youth brushed 
up, the students took the courses, and Tommy hurried home. 

This reason for becoming interested is called need. It is 
essentially a recognition of inability to control something of 
value. In the remainder of the section the concept will be 
analyzed. But before doing so, the different methods of 
securing mediate interest will be summarized. 

1. Associate the hitherto uninteresting object with an 
object of immediate interest. 

2. Make this association in a natural and telling way 

(James), with native skill and psychological infor- 
mation (Ruediger), by showing its relevancy to the 
child's experience, powers, and needs. 

3. Create a need for the new object by making the 

child appreciate his inability to control some value 
of immediate interest. Make him aware of his short- 



160 METHODS OF TEACHING 

comings, place him in such a position that he realizes 
his difficulties, his errors, and his troubles. 

Other Illustrations. — Need has a much wider applica- 
tion than that of being a means of securing mediate interest. 
It is a fundamental concept in the handling of all processes 
of human life from a functional point of view. 

For instance, we remain unconscious of objects until 
habit breaks dozen. As Angell says: 1 "An expert can use 
a typewriting machine almost without any conscious guid- 
ance of the movements which are necessary to operate it. 
He has acquired by long practice a set of habits whereby 
he manipulates the keys. These habits involve, among 
other things, co-ordinating the movements of the hand with 
movements of the eyes, the latter movements being in part 
reflex ; e. g., accommodation of the lens. As the writer 
proceeds, his mind may be entirely absorbed in the meaning 
of the sentences which he is composing. But if the ma- 
chinery of the typewriter becomes clogged, the operator must 
at once direct his attention to the machine, abandoning all 
thought of the composition. His automatised writing habits 
are powerless to deal with such a difficulty and they must 
consequently give way to conscious control processes." 

Take another illustration given in psychology. Miller 
says: 2 "Judgment is called forth under conditions of doubt 
or uncertainty of some sort which interferes with reaction, 
mental or motor. It is then necessary for us to raise the 
question, 'What is this?' We have to evaluate the situa- 
tion, etc." 

All forms of religion are due to the fact that the origi- 
nators of each form were dissatisfied with the existing 
methods of controlling religious values. Jesus, Luther, 

1 Op. cit., p. 63. 

2 Miller. The Psychology of Thinking, p. 277. 



MOTIVE 161 

Knox, Wesley, Swedenborg, come easily to mind. Each 
was dissatisfied and built up a new religion or the modifica- 
tion of an old religion. 

All forms of government had their origin in dissatisfac- 
tion with older forms. They are organized protests, which 
have taken on mutual form. Limited monarchy, repub- 
licanism, democracy, began in discontent. Even an abso- 
lute monarchy had its rise in the dissatisfaction with earlier 
unorganized and futile attempts at protection. 

Arithmetical forms each rose because earlier methods of 
computing were unsatisfactory. Multiplication is used in- 
stead of addition because addition is too slow, division be- 
cause subtraction is slow, decimals because common frac- 
tions are too cumbersome. 

Every new machine is conceived in disability and born 
in dissatisfaction. The inventor finds something that does 
not work right. The telegraph is born of slow communi- 
cation by post, wireless telegraphy by the cumbersomeness, 
expense, and inability of the older form. Gas is used for 
cooking because coal is heavy and dirty, and electricity for 
lighting because gas has an odor and is expensive. 

In fact it may be laid down as a general principle, that 
every new activity participated in by man is born of some 
need, of some inability to do what he wants to do. It is 
the universal spur to action. 

Hence it is clear that, if a pupil is to secure mediate inter- 
est in objects, an excellent method lies at hand in the need. 
Get him to recognize that he cannot control a value and as 
naturally as the plant turns to the sun, and the magnetic 
needle to the pole, his interest will turn to the means of 
control. It is a law of human nature. 

Characteristics of Need. — Need, like interest, has 
three characteristics : First, it is a feeling. But unlike 



l6 2 METHODS OF TEACHING 

interest it is usually disagreeably toned because its object 
is a breakdown in something we want to do, a doubt about 
a cherished object, a failure to accomplish, a mistake in 
plans of action. These are unpleasant things to contem- 
plate. 

Second, it is dynamic. It, like interest, is a motor, all the 
stronger because activity is held up, impeded, by an obstacle, 
and it is a law of life that nothing shall forever stand in the 
way of man's desires. When the obstacle is met, he works 
the harder. 

Third, it has an object. It has some idea within it — and 
the object on which attention centers is this obstacle, mis- 
take, dissatisfaction, breakdown, or disability. 

Is Need Always Present? — The question arises, Do we 
feel a need for everything we do? Do we feel that what 
we are now doing is not satisfactory before we do something 
else? 

A woman sees a hat in a window and buys it. Did she 
feel that her old hat was not satisfactory ? A philanthropist 
gives a beggar a dime. Did he argue that if he walked on 
he would feel ashamed of himself? A traveler tips a waiter. 
Did he think that if he did not give it he might appear 
small? A mother snatches her child from under an auto- 
mobile. Did she think how grieved she would feel if she 
stood still and allowed the child to be injured? A pupil 
builds a wagon. Did he build it because he realized the 
unpleasantness of playing without one? He may or may 
not have done so, the need is present, but it may be either 
implied or felt. The woman who bought the hat may have 
thought that her old hats were out of date, or at least failed 
to impress Mrs. Grundy. The philanthropist may have 
felt ashamed of going on. Tips are usually given because 
a man does not wish to appear cheap. The mother may have 



MOTIVE 163 

had rushing visions of a mangled child, and the boy may 
have wanted a wagon for months. They may all have felt 
the need. 

Or, on the other hand, the sight of the hat may have been 
so compelling that the woman skipped the intervening need. 
She may not have thought of her present sad condition. 
The sight of the beggar may have made the philanthropist 
put his hand in his pocket and give the dime. The boy 
may have seen a wagon and said, "I am going to have one 
like that." But if they had stopped to think before acting, 
each could have found a need, a disability and dis- 
satisfaction. 

Needs are then present potentially and implicitly or they 
may be felt. But if you find a man reluctant to do what 
you want, make him see that something he wants cannot be 
done till he does what you want, and if he wants his badly 
enough he will do. yours. 

Value of the Conception of Need in Education. — First, 
it lays stress upon the consciousness of mistakes, of failure 
as a motive for action. 

At once objections arise. Some pupils are already too 
much inclined to notice their own mistakes. To be sure, 
a few are — the average individual is not, neither boy nor 
girl. He is, on the whole, too easily satisfied. The sensi- 
tive self-distrusting pupil needs to have little attention 
paid to him by the teacher to make him conscious of his 
failures. But his is an unusual case — less than ten per cent 
of the cases. 

Again, will recognition of mistakes and failures not dis- 
courage pupils ? Not necessarily and not usually. We have 
seen, that it is a spur to action. It brings discouragement 
only when there is a recognition of two facts — (1) a mistake 
or difficulty, and (2) no known way out. Now, it is the 



ie^ METHODS OF TEACHING 

business of the school to provide assistance in finding ways 
out — that is the function of school management. So if the 
school is doing its work, if the teacher is helpful and opti- 
mistic, there need be no discouragement and will be none. 

Will this not make the teacher a scold? Not necessarily 
or likely. For if the method is worked properly — like, for 
instance, Spencer handles moral education through natural 
consequences of error, there is a good deal of fun in standing 
back and seeing a boy go through error to the point where 
he is shocked by his absurdity. Then, again, even where 
the teacher points out errors, he will become crabbed only 
when he is unsympathetic. If he is showing error with good 
will just because he wants the pupil to correct himself, 
there is no danger. 

The plan of appealing largely to -immediate interest has 
a predisposition in the hands of the average teacher to 
dress subject-matter up in attractive sensuous form so that 
a superficial interest is generated. Spelling is learned by 
picking words off a tree on the board. In teaching addi- 
tion objects are used long after they are helpful. This is a 
tendency with teachers who cannot distinguish between 
immediate interests that should be appealed to and those 
which should not. So in the case of need — the thoughtless 
teacher will get hold of the idea sufficiently to give him 
justification for scolding and fault-finding. But there is 
all the difference in the world between fault-finding and 
finding faults. If the teacher is sympathetic and finds faults 
the pupil will improve ; if he is a fault-finder, the pupil will 
get a distaste for school work — not because the teacher finds 
faults but because he lacks sympathy and good-fellowship. 

Second. The need supplements interest. The feeling 
about interest is largely that school work should be made as 
pleasant as possible. That is how it works out in practice. 



MOTIVE 165 

Not much place is given to the recognition of faults and 
difficulties. The need concept gives a very definite place 
in teaching to the recognition of these difficulties. It justi- 
fies the teacher in not only making the work as pleasant and 
interesting as practicable, but also in having the work hard, 
and in using the pupil's knowledge of difficulties as a legiti- 
mate means of getting interest. 

Third. By the very nature of the need the pupil is bet- 
ter able to see the use and function of subject-matter. For, 
in feeling a need, he first has some value to control ; he then 
sees that he cannot control the value, and, when he takes 
up the study of the subject-matter that will give control, he 
sees at once its use. The subject-matter learned under the 
stress of need cannot be isolated. The teacher may say, 
"Today we shall study these ten words in spelling," and 
the pupils will probably see no particular use for knowing 
how to spell them. But if in the written work that these 
pupils are doing errors are found and the words are given 
for spelling, some use is seen ; they have failed in written 
work because of these words. And their interest in telling 
accurately what they know will make them feel both the use 
and the need of studying them. 

Section 2. Generic Values 

No matter what teachers think they can do or ought to do, 
it is impossible to keep activity from going in the direction 
in which it wants to go. The pupil must feel some value 
in his action, because if he does not he cannot do it. He 
may hate to take care of the baby, and can be persuaded to 
do so only through the fear of incurring tangible parental 
displeasure. But the fact that this stimulus makes him do 
it means that, though disliking it most vigorously, he wants 
to avoid sad consequences. In other words, he performs 



!66 METHODS OF TEACHING 

the hated action because he feels the value of doing so. And 
if no value of any sort could be seen in the action, if he did 
not care for anything else in the world that could be con- 
nected with this action, he not only would not, but could 
not do it. 

There is no such thing as doing work in which one is not 
interested, or for which one does not have a need, implicit 
or conscious. Usually it is said that pupils have no interest 
in that which they are compelled to do. But, as a matter of 
fact, they have enough interest — mediate interest — to do it.. 
The thing of immediate interest to them is to avoid punish- 
ment. A pupil may have no interest in keeping his face 
clean. The teacher may lead him to feel that by this he is 
missing the teacher's approbation. If the boy keeps his face 
cleaned for this reason, even if he has little interest in it, 
he has enough interest to make him do it. 

Securing interest and having a need is not, then, so much 
a matter of some interest versus none, as it is a choice 
between good interest and poor interest. A pupil studies 
grammar to make the best grade in the room, to please 
his father, to avoid detention, or to learn to speak correctly. 
A pastor preaches to make a reputation as a pulpit orator, 
or to save the souls of sinners. A woman cooks to create 
an impression, or to give the family nourishing food. A 
girl learns a geography lesson from a sense of duty, or be- 
cause it gives her useful information. In every case there is 
a need and interest; but the values which these things help 
to control are different. 

Generic Values. — One class of values that operates 
with great frequency are generic values. This is a name 
given to those values which can be used in a great variety 
of situations and can be made the basis of motive in a large 
field of activity. Making good grades may apply as a motive 



MOTIVE 167 

in every subject in the course of study. Love of approba- 
tion is a motive that makes some children work at every- 
thing. Avoiding detention is a negative value which oper- 
ates widely. Making a reputation (another form of love 
of approbation), doing one's duty, easing one's conscience, 
and a number of others, are generic in the sense that they 
apply with nearly equal force to every sort of situation. 

Classes of Generic Values. — The instincts are a well- 
known class of generic values. Rivalry, sympathy, fear, 
constructiveness, play, curiosity and love of approbation, 
are some of those most commonly used in school. Fear will 
make many children do many sorts of things. Curiosity 
functions in many lessons and is a steady stand-by of 
the teacher. Some teachers teach everything through 
games. 

These are motives to which appeal is easily made and 
because of that may be easily overworked. One teacher 
who taught geography in the fifth grade entirely by means 
of games and prided herself upon it, judged her success 
by the amount of excitement and superficial interest she 
could evoke. But, tested by the knowledge of the material 
and ability to use it, her pupils failed. Desire to please a 
teacher makes many children work, but when they leave 
school or are promoted to another room interest in school 
work may flag. They have no motive for further study. 

The virtues may likewise be generic values. Duty, hon- 
esty, punctuality, cleanliness, thoroughness, reliability, 
honor, and unselfishness, apply to a wide range of subjects 
and situations. A sense of duty moves many to perform 
a wide variety of tasks. Thoroughness holds one to a task 
when other motives have ceased and maintains interest 
when it would otherwise have disappeared. Honor creates 
interest in certain situations, which, except for this sense, 



1 68 METHODS OF TEACHING 

would be avoided. The virtues are really moral devices for 
regulating action along wise lines when superficial interests 
would tend to lead them astray. 

Vices are likewise generic values. Doing what one wants 
to do, irrespective of the rights of others, greediness (tak- 
ing more than one's share), and gratification of lusts are all 
felt to be values by those who practice them, though judged 
by objective standards they may seem to be valueless. 

School incentives are generic values. The desire to be 
promoted, to make a grade, to be first to secure prizes and 
rewards, to avoid corporal punishment, to please the 
teacher, to escape detention, and to live up to class opinion 
are all motives widely if not wisely used. 

These motives have to be selected with the greatest care, 
because being school motives they do not operate in quite 
the same form in adult life, and if pupils form the habit 
of relying upon them as a spur to action in school, they 
may have no spur to take their place in performing the 
drudgery and prosaic details of life. 

Which Generic Values Should be Used? — Abstractly 
the question is easy to answer. Use the most permanent 
and the highest that will appeal to the pupils. Pupils differ 
at different ages in the motives that appeal most efficiently. 
Love of play is a good motive at one age, a poor motive 
later, ^uty is an adult motive but not one that appeals 
to children, especially boys. Future success appeals to the 
adolescent, but not to his younger brother. 

Appealing to adult motives in dealing with young chil- 
dren is a mistake often made by teachers. Children are 
not adults, and primitive motives and punishments often 
make an appeal where the refined motives of maturer vears 
will not operate. Many a boy has been given a more 
wholesome stimulus to righteousness by the fists of an irate 



MOTIVE 169 

playmate behind the barn, than by miles of gentle homilies 
delivered by his respected mother. 

Practically, it is hard to decide what motive to use in 
any particular case because children differ and situations 
differ. The teacher has to decide for himself which is the 
highest and most permanent motive that will appeal. 

Section 3. Specific Values 

The assumption in the use of these generic values, where 
they are the only motives to which appeal is made, is that 
all subject-matter is alike. The principle established in 
this text, however, is that each unit of subject-matter has a 
different use and should be taught when its specific use is 
recognized and needed. 

Because of this it is necessary to consider the method by 
which a motive for studying one specific unit rather than 
another arises. These values and motives we have called 
specific to distinguish them from generic. And by specific 
values is meant simply this fact, that there are values, 
motives, needs, and interests which differ slightly from 
every other. 

The need for a head-covering differs from the need for 
a neck-decoration. The need for a method of telling time 
differs from the need for fastening two papers together. 
And, in like manner, the subject-matter that satisfies the 
need is different in each case. The first has produced the 
hat, the second the necktie, the third the watch, and the 
fourth the paper clip. 

It is evident, then, that if we are to teach subject-matter 
intelligently, using each unit where and when the particular 
need that demands it is felt, we have to pay attention to 
these specific values which each different unit was made 
to control. 



lyo METHOD OF TEACHING 

When Use Generic Values? — Generic motives should 
supplement specific motives when the latter flag. A girl 
may be interested in making a tabic decoration. When she 
has partly finished, interest wanes. Then the teacher may 
appeal to some generic motive, such as doing well whatever 
is begun, or even fear of punishment if necessary. A boy 
may not be sufficiently interested in his school work to be 
on time. Other interests may conflict. Then the teacher 
may appeal to his desire for punctuality, or may stimulate 
interest in punctuality by other motives. 

Classes of Specific Motives. — It is impossible to classify 
specific values in any useful way. Count over the little 
particular things that you think are valuable, and the task 
of cataloging them will be found to be impossible. In a 
broad way we have groups of social values, moral, intel- 
lectual, physical, aesthetic, religious, and practical values. 
And again, to repeat, each group is so large that its units 
cannot be enumerated. Since needs arise when failure to 
control these values occurs, there is an illimitable number 
of specific needs, each differing from the others. For in- 
stance, in controlling physical values, there are specific needs 
for an erect carriage, proper digestion, clean finger-nails, 
deep breathing, etc., etc. 

From among this number the school selects the funda- 
mental values and needs, the permanent and the tempo- 
rarily important, and helps the child to satisfy them. 

How to Create a Specific Need for a Unit. — The prin- 
ciple has already been stated. First, find the specific func- 
tion of the subject-matter to be taught. Determine the value 
it was created to control. Second, see if this value is a 
value to the pupils to be taught. Third, if so, enable them 
to recognize that they cannot control this value ; and, fourth, 
help them to turn to and conquer the subject-matter. 



MOTIVE 171 

Perhaps the teacher wishes to take up the methods of 
curing mumbling in reading. The specific intrinsic function 
of these devices is to assist the child to convey a valuable 
meaning to other people. Assume that he wants to convey 
this meaning. Let him see that his interested audience 
cannot understand him. He will then try to correct his 
defect, and will to that end study methods of curing 
mumbling. 

To "get the jump" on the other team will stop their 
charge. This is the function of "getting the jump." Let 
the team play against another team and be forced back 
because the other team got the jump. The defeated team 
will try to get the jump the next time they play games. 

If we appealed to the generic values, we would assume 
that the mumbling reader wanted to do his duty, wanted to 
excel, to avoid punishment, etc. We would get him to recog- 
nize that if he did not cure it he would be neglecting his 
plain duty, would not excel, would be punished, etc., and 
would expect him to learn the tricks. The team would be 
supposed to have the honor of the school at heart, etc., and 
would be shown that the honor would be lowered if they did 
not "get the jump." 

The advantages of the appeal to the specific motives is 
obvious. A definite use for the subject to be taught is seen. 

Inasmuch as all the specific examples in the remainder of 
the text, no matter what problem of teaching is to be exem- 
plified, will utilize specific motives, it is not necessary to 
illustrate them more fully here. 

References for Class Reading 

Angell, Psychology, pp. 63-66, 214-217. 
Bagley, Educative Process, pp. 83-85. 
Bagley, Educational Values, pp. 120-127. 



172 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



Exercises 

1. Give five illustrations of how a need is aroused for 
practical, out-of-school things. 

2. How do you suppose the need arose for multiplica- 
tion, for stocks and bonds, for weather maps, for botany, 
for alchemy, for windows, for furnaces? What in each 
case was the value, what the difficulty? 

3. Select ten other objects of common use and state 
how you think the need arose. 

4. Give five cases of where things were done in which 
the need may have been either implicit or felt. Describe the 
mental content in both the implicit need and the felt need 
in each case. 

5. Give five cases of where you have been spurred to 
action by being made to feel your shortcomings. 

6. Give five cases in which interest was secured in 
things because of superficial appeal to catchy interests. How 
would you have made a worthy appeal ? 

7. What do you think of corporal punishment as a 
means of making pupils do their work? Should it ever be 
used? If so, when? 

8. Should an appeal be made to the children's desire to 
make good grades? If so, when? 

9. What are the dangers in an attractive teacher using 
her attractiveness to make pupils work? 

10. State five cases in which a teacher might have used 
an appeal to specific values instead of making an appeal to 
generic values. How? 

11. Recall the methods of each grade teacher that you 
have had and see whether the appeal was made to specific 
use of subject-matter or to generic values. Be very careful 
in your report. 



CHAPTER XI 
MOTIVE— (Continued) 

Section i. Active and Potential Motives 

If subject-matter is not to be presented to children until 
they feel the specific need for it, what shall we do with 
important subject-matter for which they feel no need? 
There are three answers to that question, all of which de- 
pend upon a distinction to be drawn between two classes of 
needs — active and potential. 

A potential need is one not felt, but such that it can be 
felt by the pupils. The suggestion of the need by the 
teacher or by the class will call it into action. A man has, 
perhaps, never felt any need for repainting his house, but 
it is possible that he can be made to do so. A boy has 
never felt the need for being honest, but he may be made 
to feel it. A pupil has never felt the need of knowing 
arithmetic, but he, in turn, may be made to feel.it. The 
pupils may easily be put into many situations in which 
the sense of need can be developed. 

Sometimes, however, no need may be felt, nor can it be 
aroused. It is hard to make a Hindoo feel that he needs 
skates, some farmer that he needs an automobile, a woman 
that she needs a pair of brogans. Frequently boys cannot 
be made to feel the specific and intrinsic need for Latin or 
for cooking, just as it is impossible to make some girls 
feel any need for algebra or physics. 

There are, then, three possible cases. A need may be 

173 



174 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



felt ; it may not be felt but may be potential ; it may not 
be felt and may not be potential. 

To the question above, Should children study subject- 
matter for which they feel no need? the answer is, If the 
intrinsic need is potential, they should; if it is not felt and 
cannot be aroused, they should not. 

This contradicts many teachers who feel that things for 
which the intrinsic need is not now felt should be taught 
because they will be of use in later life. One argument is 
sufficient to meet this position. We know from the 
psychology of memory that if a thing is learned and is not 
used for years it is sure to be forgotten. How many men 
can remember one-tenth of what is in a text-book whose 
subject-matter they have not used since they left school? 
Learning things that are not immediately useful means that 
we temporarily load the memory with junk which will be 
a present encumbrance and, before the time for using it 
arrives, will have been unloaded. 

One can always create a generic need for any subject- 
matter. Tell a sensitive boy to learn the Chinese alphabet 
or he will be thrashed, and he will do it. There is always 
present some potential generic need which can be turned 
upon any subject. But in the answer to our question we 
were speaking only of specific needs. 

Section 2. The Problem as Motive 

Within the last three years a very considerable body of 
literature has sprung up around the place of problems in 
teaching. Previous to that time writers talked about the 
aim or the topic of the recitation. 

The problem is simply one phase of need. When the 
need emerges it gives rise to the problem of satisfying 
the need. If one needs bread, his problem becomes that 



MOTIVE 175 

of securing bread. If a boy needs a saw, his problem is 
to satisfy the need and secure the saw. If a pupil needs to 
learn a rule in grammar, his problem becomes that of 
learning it. 

Just as we say each unit of subject-matter was created to 
satisfy some need, we also say it was created to solve some 
problem. 

The difference between need and problem is chiefly this, 
that the need has feeling in it, while the problem is purely 
intellectual. This is evident in the two statements : He 
needs to earn money, and, his problem is to earn money. 
The second is intellectual — no feeling. The first has much 
that the second does not have, and this additional element 
is chiefly feeling. Literature satisfies needs and does more 
than merely solve problems. If it merely solved problems, 
literature would be only a matter of information. But it 
is more; it is satisfying. Hamlet solves a problem; it also 
satisfies a need. 

Origin of Problems. — The conditions under which a 
problem arises are the same as those under which a need 
arises. We have first something we wish to do, then an 
obstacle to doing it; and this gives rise to the problem. 

There are several types of situations in which problems 
arise. Of these, a few of the most important will be 
mentioned here. 

Habits. — Problems arise when familiar methods of 
doing things fail. To lace my shoe uses a series of move- 
ments, so that I need pay no attention to it. I break the 
lace. Then a problem arises as to how to get my shoes 
laced now. A child works a problem in multiplication 
largely by habit. He checks it and finds that he is wrong. 
The problem of correcting it arises. A boy has been accus- 
tomed to working on the principle that 1 man can do 



I7 6 METHODS OF TEACHING 

twice as much work in 2 days as in I day. He is given 
the problem, How long will it take 2 men to do a piece of 
work if one does it in 1 day? Applying the same principle, 
he will answer, 2 days. But this means, so he is told, that 
2 men take twice as long to do a piece of work as 1 man 
does. He sees the absurdity and a problem arises. 

Conflict Among Ideas. — Adams 1 says, "The ideas within 
the mind must be at peace with each other. The moment 
friction arises there must be ceaseless activity till the dis- 
agreement is removed. Consistency among the ideas is an 
essential to quietness of mind. All the mental content 
must be harmonized ; there must be no contradiction in the 
arrangement that has been, imposed upon the ideas." 

When the teacher makes use of this principle in teaching, 
Adams calls it Confrontation. 2 That is, the teacher may 
raise a problem by confronting two ideas which are within 
the pupils' experience but which are contradictory. For 
instance, in teaching the siphon the teacher may ask the 
pupils, "Does water ever run up hill?" The pupils will 
reply, "Of course not." Then the teacher may set a work- 
ing siphon on the table, and all that is necessary to say is, 
"Well, how about this?" Here an old accepted idea is 
met by a fact in plain sight. And there will be no rest until 
the two are reconciled. 

Adams gives four or five cases, 3 of which the following 
is interesting for the reason that the teacher as well as the 
pupils were confronted by inconsistencies: "A teacher, giv- 
ing a lesson to a young class on a bluebottle, asked how 
the creature made its familiar buzzing noise. When she 
received an answer, she told the children that she expected 

1 Exposition and Illustration in Teaching, p. 75. 

2 Op. cit., p. 79. 

3 Op. cit., pp. 75-84. 



MOTIVE 



177 



that answer. Of course they thought the bluebottle buzzed 
with its mouth, because when they wanted to buzz they did 
it with their mouths. Accepting the teacher's word that 
they were wrong, the class had no peace till she told them 
that the buzzing was caused by the wings. This gave the 
children perfect satisfaction, as it did the teacher, till her 
Normal instructor pointed out that if you remove the blue- 
bottle's wings it does not stop buzzing, but actually buzzes 
a little harder than usual. It was now the teacher's turn to 
be worried, and it was not till she had learned about the 
special little buzzing organ 1 that she could drop the subject 
and be at peace once more." 

A teacher is teaching commission. The pupils have just 
solved this problem : What is an agent's commission for 
selling $3000 worth of goods at i%? The teacher slips in 
the following problem without explanation : A man sends 
$2500 to a commission agent out of which to buy goods 
after deducting the agent's commission of 2%. What was 
the agent's commission? Invariably the pupils will answer, 
$50. To confront them with their error the teacher may 
say, "How much did the agent invest?" Answer: $2450. 
"Then, what is the commission on $2450 at 2% ?" An- 
swer: $49. "But you found just a moment ago that he 
received $50. Now you say $49. This is a pretty state of 
affairs for a strong arithmetic class — getting two answers 
that are not alike." 

Concrete Activities. — The problem can be made to 
stand out prominently in work done with tangible materials, 
such as wood, iron, cooking materials, etc. A domestic 
science pupil may not see any problems in preliminary 
work on foods. But if she makes muffins which are soggy, 

1 Discovered by Landois. T. H. Huxley : Anatomy of Inverte- 
brate d Animals, p. 377. 



I7 8 METHODS OF TEACHING 

a problem comes unmistakably into consciousness. So with 
woodworking. The difficulties are evident to the eye. All 
work that can be "put down in black and white" is excep- 
tionally good for making the pupils realize their difficulties. 

Curiosity. — The desire to know what is not known just 
for the sake of knowing it is a deep-seated tendency of 
human kind, and, to a less degree, of all the other higher 
animals. 

Earhart 1 says, "A prolific source of problems, whether in 
school or out of it, is curiosity. We wonder why, or how, 
or what, and reach out in other directions for more knowl- 
edge. This curiosity may be an idle, fleeting kind, which, 
left to itself, would result in little effort and progress. It 
may be of a primitive nature, not being based upon pre- 
vious knowledge. A teacher appeals to primitive curiosity 
when he leads his class to desire to hear a story they have 
never heard before, or to see something new. He arouses 
expectation and desire which are directed towards unknown 
objects. Rightly valued and employed, however, curiosity 
may be made a valuable agent in education. 

Intelligent curiosity, which is based upon partial knowl- 
edge, which reaches out to some definite end, and which 
leads to some adequate method of attainment of that end, 
cannot be over-estimated as a means of development and 
training. Consequently the suppression of curiosity just 
because it is curiosity, or the rejection of a method just 
because it appeals to curiosity, is short-sighted. The appeal 
to curiosity is justifiable, but it should lead to some intelli- 
gent end, and not remain upon the level of mere idle wonder. 

A teacher may have in view the teaching of an important 
lesson in some subject; she may lead the children to ap- 
proach it by appealing to a curiosity initially connected with 

1 Teaching Children to Study, pp. n and 12. 



MOTIVE 



179 



some superficial fact. The explanation of that fact leads 
into the subject step by step, until, when the lesson period 
is over, the teacher's aim is accomplished. A lesson on gla- 
ciers may begin with the observation of markings on rocks, 
or the discovery of boulders in the soil. The question arises, 
'How did they come to be there?' and in answering it the 
subject of glaciers is taught. A comparative study of cot- 
ton and wool might be introduced by the question as to 
why wool was used before cotton for making cloth. Simi- 
larly in other subjects, some fact may be brought to the 
attention which provokes the curiosity and tends to direct 
thought into desired channels." 

Discipline of Natural Consequences. — Spencer applied 
the principle we have been working with here. He calls it 
the discipline of natural consequences. He says in effect: 
Parents obtrude themselves too much into the moral educa- 
tion of their children. What they should do is to let the 
child go ahead and do the wrong act, and then see that the 
natural consequence of this act is visited upon him — this 
natural consequence, being painful, will make him halt and 
thereafter he will do the right thing. For instance — he says, 
if a child makes a litter the natural consequence is not that 
the mother should scold and then pick up the articles ; rather, 
it is that the child should pick them up himself. If a girl 
is not ready to take her walk with her mother, the natural 
consequence is that she stay at home. 1 

Most teachers, like most parents, push themselves too 
much into the learning process. They are too ready to say, 
"That is wrong," instead of letting the pupil go on until 
he sees that he is wrong. A sentence was given for analysis : 
High flew the spray above their heads. The teacher said, 
"What is the subject?" 
1 Spencer, Education, pp. 162-213. 



180 METHODS OF TEACHING 

''High," answered a boy. 

"What is the verb?" 

"Flew." 

"Object?" 

"Spray." 

"Is flew transitive or intransitive?" 

''Intransitive." 

"How can it have an object?" 

Xo answer. (He saw that he had made an error some- 
where and was ready to begin over again.) 

This is better than for the teacher to have said "Wrong" 
after the boy said that the subject was "high"; for now he 
does not have to accept the ipse dixit of the teacher ; he sees 
that he is wrong. 

Then, again, most teachers do too much preliminary ex- 
plaining. We have been taught disastrously to divide a les- 
son into such little steps that the pupil can go along easily. 
For instance, in the transition to the new type of commis- 
sion problem from the first given above, teachers usually 
stop and say, "This is different, it differs in such and such 
particulars. Before we begin to work them let us take a 
few easier problems, etc." 

The writer believes that it is better to slip the new type 
in without warning. The pupils go blithely ahead using the 
old plan, they are brought up sharp, and then they see the 
use of the teacher's explanations, because they see that they 
have made a mess of their work. 

Three-quarters of the preliminary explanations is wasted 
breath. You want to learn to ride a bicycle. Your experi- 
enced friend delivers a long homily on how to do it. He is, 
in fact, glad of the opportunity to give the advice. You 
listen, do not know what it all means, feel that this is an 
unusually intricate business, and are itching to start. When 



MOTIVE l8l 

you get on you forget all that he has said — and flounder. 
The best advice he can give you is, "Get on and ride." You 
do so. Then you begin to ask questions, "How do I place 
my feet? etc. 7 ' And now, when he gives you all the informa- 
tion he might have given you before you started, you see the 
use of it and can profit by it. 

If we are to keep education free from the stigma of 
"spoon feeding" we must give the growing boy some diffi- 
culties to master which at the start are just a little bit bigger 
than he is. We can help him out after he has gotten into 
them. Though often if we give him a chance we find that he 
has more brains than we thought he had. 

Facing difficulties about our size is most exhilarating. 
Doing little easy things is very tiresome. If you want people 
to work for you give them something to do so hard that it 
will extend their powers. It fires the imagination, calls 
forth all the energies of mind and muscle, and, in short, 
is fun. 

Facing difficulties without preliminary advice is also ex- 
hilarating. Mother says, "Don't do that, Willie, or you will 
get hurt." It is much better (within reason) to say, "Go 
ahead, Willie, and see what happens." The shock shows 
Willie that it would be better to leave "that" alone. To him 
this shock is both efficacious and thrilling. There is a world 
of significance in his remark, "I sure won't do that again." 
He is feeling the effect of the discipline of natural conse- 
quences. 

Section 3. The Problem and the Statement of Aim 

Teachers acquainted with the Herbartian Five Formal 
Steps will remember that in the step of Preparation the aim 
of the lesson is stated. "The third precaution in this step 
[Preparation]," say the McMurrys, 1 "is fully as important 

1 The Method of the Recitation, p. 105. 



182 METHODS OF TEACHING 

as either of the other two, and, in fact, conditions the success 
of both; it requires the statement of the aim. The attention 
of pupils must be centered quickly and fully on the work 
undertaken." The aim of the recitation should be stated 
at the outset. 

It is impossible in application of the Five Formal Steps to 
get away from the fact that the standpoint looks upon each 
unit of subject-matter as relatively isolated. The teacher is 
advised to state what he is going to take up with the pupils. 
To be sure it must be along the line of the pupils' direct 
interests. But in this plan there is no necessary connection 
with the pupil's past, to say nothing of his present, except 
that which is made through review of the past by the teacher. 

On the other hand, the idea of beginning a lesson only 
when a problem or need is present, implies a change of point 
of view from a unit of subject-matter selected and "made 
interesting" to the pupils, to a consideration of the pupil and 
his difficulties. The subject-matter in the second case be- 
comes secondary to the needs and problems, to the values of 
the pupil's experience. 

As Bagley says, 1 "the aim [of the lesson] should . . . 
relate the forthcoming subject-matter to the needs of the 
child; that is, it should seize upon some need and show how 
it may be satisfied." 

There is a wide difference between stating the problem 
of a lesson and raising the problem, and a still wider differ- 
ence between the teacher's stating an aim and the pupils' 
realizing a problem. If a teacher raises the problem he 
goes back to values the pupil has, and presents difficulties. 
After the problem is raised it ought at times to be stated 
for the sake of clearness. But its statement ought never to 
be forced. The teacher ought never to state it unless he is 

1 The Educative Process, p. 292. 



MOTIVE 183 

sure that it is a real problem ; i. e., is closely related to the 
values of the pupil. 

Instead of saying that the first thing "in the lesson is the 
statement of the aim, it is preferable to say that the first 
thing is to raise the problem or to arouse the need. 

Sumrjaary.— In this and the two foregoing chapters we 
havTtried to show that children have certain native and im- 
mediate interests and values which determine the direction 
that their activity is to take. It was pointed out that there 
were potential interests and values which could be made 
active. Itjs the business of teaching to make the potential 
_become active, and to assist the pupils to secure efficient 
control over the most important interests and values. To do 
this subject-matter is used, subject-matter for which there 
is often no motive until the pupils recognize the necessity 
of learning this subject-matter in order to acquire control 
over their immediate interests. This recognition of lack of 
control on the part of the learner is called need. The prob- 
lem is related closely to need. And both are necessary mo- 
tives for the acquisition of new subject-matter. These needs 
may be generic or specific according to whether the values 
to be controlled are the great intrinsic values which provide 
motives in all phases of life, or are values differing each 
from the other for the control of which each specific unit 
of subject-matter has been constructed. 

References for Class Reading 

Adams, Exposition and Illustration in Teaching, pp. 75-85 
and 171-184. 

De Garmo, Principles of Secondary Education, Vol. II, 
pp. 21-27. 

Dewey, Hozv We Think, pp. 68-74. 

Earhart, Teaching Children to Study, pp. 7-21. 



^4 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Miller, Psychology of Thinking, pp. 1 15-129. 
Spencer, Education, pp. 175-189. 
Exercises 

1. Give five cases of potential needs made active. State 
how each was made active. 

2. Explain how the orator makes potential needs active. 
Why is the orator so successful in this? 

3. Of what use are radicals and reformers in making 
potential needs active? 

4. State two great needs of adult life that are absent 
in early childhood, potential in adolescence, and active in 
maturity. 

5. What do you think of the proposition that pupils 
should learn many things for which they have no use at 
the time but which will be useful in after life? Name ten 
things studied that have this as the reason for being taught. 

6. Give five cases of where a problem in your thinking 
has arisen because some long accepted belief has met with 
facts that contradict it. Did you feel worried about any 
of these before getting them settled? 

7. Describe something you have done recently in which 
you have met with a- whole series of problems as you carried 
it on. 

8. Give five cases in which the plan of allowing pupils 
to make statement, and then carrying them on till they saw 
that they were wrong, worked. 

9. What are the limitations to the application of the 
discipline of natural consequences? 

10. McMurry says that the statement of the aim should 
have five characteristics {The Method of the Recitation, 
pp. 107-111). If you are careful to raise the problem out 
of the child's experience will the teacher obey these rules 
unconsciously or not? 



CHAPTER XII 

CONTROL OF VALUES 

Section i. Methods of Control. 

Illustrations of methods of securing motives will be de- 
ferred until the control of values and the systematized and 
incidental study of subject-matter is discussed, because they 
are so closely bound together that much duplication will 
thereby be avoided. 

Classes of Control. — In this chapter we shall first dis- 
cuss the methods of control that are worked out and later 
the way in which they are worked out. 

The first may be stated in the form of a question : What 
are the methods of control that any individual has at hand 
when he attempts to secure this control? 

The answer is supplied by Bagley, whose classification 
will be followed here. 1 

Inherited Controls. — Every pupil has at his command 
certain instincts and reflexes which control values for him. 
One excellent illustration of instinctive control is found In 
imitation, which operates all through life and is particu- 
larly strong during the early years of school. Flight is 
another inherited method of control when some value is 
in jeopardy. Simple reflexes such as winking the eyes at 
the approach of foreign substances are also useful. The 
great rhythmic reflexes such as circulation and respira- 

1 Educational Values, pp. 1-77. 

185 



iS6 METHODS OF TEACHING 

tion are invaluable methods of sustaining and improving 
life. 

Acquired Controls. — There are four main classes. 

Specific habits become automatic. Writing is largely a 
habit. I have an idea, take a pen and start to write. The 
reaction is automatic. A carpenter is making a box, he 
picks up a board and a saw. No attention is paid to the 
way the handle is gripped or to the muscular to and fro 
movement because habit controls it automatically. Other 
illustrations are unnecessary. A very large percentage of 
all values controlled, are controlled by habit. 

Knozvledge is a second type of control. Ideas, facts, 
principles are stored and utilized when the appropriate 
occasion arises. Damp feet induce a cold, mere book-learn- 
ing is ineffective, matches should not be thrown in the 
waste-paper basket, America was discovered in 1492, be- 
ware the gift-bearing Greeks, automobiles are expensive, are 
random illustrations of facts and principles which control 
our actions. Electricity, furnace, typhoid, mosquito, flies, 
are ideas, knowledge of which likewise influence action. 
All knowledge, whether accurate or inaccurate, influences 
action. 

Ideals are values and in a way determine methods of con- 
trol. Ideas are intellectual : ideals are emotional. Ideals of 
honesty, accuracy, thoroughness are charged with feelings. 
And they affect action. I need one thousand dollars. I 
might steal it. But the ideal of honesty negatives that 
method of control. 

Prejudices, tastes, and attitudes control conduct. Of 
course, prejudices may be either good or bad. It is an ex- 
cellent thing to have a prejudice — a bent — toward honesty 
just as it is bad to be prejudiced against a foreigner because 
he is a foreigner. Tastes in like manner are good or bad. 



CONTROL OF VALUES 187 

Attitude is a term that properly includes tastes and 
prejudices. 

The important thing about all these methods of control is 
that they are forceful arid effective as actual methods of 
control ; and the more intangible are probably more power- 
ful than mere knowledge. One's prejudices and attitudes 
toward life are often contrary to what he knows. But gen- 
erally speaking, where prejudices and knowledge conflict 
prejudices win out. It is almost impossible to make knowl- 
edge conflict with prejudices because there is an inborn ten- 
dency to see in any situation what we want to see. 

Hence it is more important that attitudes, tastes, preju- 
dices and ideals are effective and right than that they 
should be wrong and knowledge and information be exten- 
sive and accurate. 

The teacher gets the pupils with their prejudices already 
formed or in a process of formation outside school. If he 
seeks only to give information, he will have little forceful 
influence in their lives. But if he uses information and 
repetition in such a way as to batter down inefficient preju- 
dices, tastes, attitudes and ideals and nourish and protect 
efficient ones, he may hope to perform an effective educa- 
tional service. 

The important pedagogical question remaining is, How 
are these acquired controls acquired? (The instincts and 
reflexes are, of course, not acquired by an individual ; they 
are inherited.) This process will be discussed in the next 
section and will be found to involve the principles already 
elaborated in the text. 

Section 2. Analysis of the Process of Control 

Needs. — Habits, knowledge, ideals, prejudices, tastes 
and attitudes arise in response to needs. This we have 



1 88 METHODS OF TEACHING 

discussed in part. All these methods of control just men- 
tioned are ways of acting, thinking, and feeling, and, as 
has been shown, habit and knowledge are the result of dis- 
satisfaction with other habits and earlier lack of information. 
Prejudices, likewise, are fallen into because they seem to 
handle the situation well. A boy may belong to a group 
in which the opinion is openly held that any boy who will 
not lie to shield the group is a coward. The desire to stand 
in with the group, superinduced by the knowledge of what 
will happen if he does not, compels him to accept this preju- 
dice as his own, and repetition weaves it into the body of 
his tissue of prejudices and attitudes toward life. 

Even though information and habits are picked up at 
random, they are acquired bit by bit, and earch bit if care- 
fully analyzed will be found to have some need as its motive. 

Problem. — We have just seen when the new subject- 
matter is acquired. It is gained at a time when there is a 
need for it. If we inquire how it is acquired, we shall get 
the best assistance from books by studying the methods by 
which problems are solved. How problems arise and their 
relation to need were discussed in the last chapter. How 
they are solved will be treated at this point. 

Case i. In arithmetic we have problems like this : How 
much U. P. preferred at 150 can I buy for 2000 shares of 
U. S Steel common at 67, brokerage % ? 

The directions the pupils follow are: 

(1) What is to be found? 

(2) What is given? 

(3) Solve. 

(4) Check up. 

The pupil works through as follows: 

(1) To find number of U. P. shares. 

(2) Given a) U. P. shares at 150 (to buy). 



CONTROL OF VALUES 



189 



b) 2000 shares of U. S. Steel common 

at 67 (invested). 

c) brokerage l /g. 
(3). Solution. 

2000 shares U. S. Steel at 67 



Brokerage 



= 134000 

= 250 



Net proceeds 
1 share of U. P. pref. 
Brokerage on 1 share 

Gross price per share 
Amount to invest 
Number of shares = 133750 



133750 
1 150 



= $ 150^ 
= $133750 



150/ = 8ooifi 



(4) Check 



(890HISX 150/8+250) 
67 



2000 



Case 2. In algebra we may have an example like this 

Solve X 4 + X 2 — 2 = O 
The pupil will proceed as follows : 

1) To find factors 

2) Given a) equation as stated 

b) certain rules for solution 

3) a) throw into form of quadratic 

X 4 + X 2 — 2 = 
• (X 2 ) 2 -(X 2 )-2 = 
Factor by trial 

X 2 + 2 

X 2 — i 

(X 2 + 2) (X 2 -i)=0 
Again, factor 

(X 2 + 2) (X-i) (X+i) 



190 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Again, 

X 2 +2=0 

(X 2 -V-2) 2 =:0 

(X-V-2) (X+V-2) (X-i) (X+i)=0 
Roots = +V — 2 , — V — 2, +i, — ! 
or (3) could be carried on by the longer method 
X 4 +X 2 — 2=0 
X 2 = — i+yT+8 



2 
= — 1+3=_2 or +1 



X 2 = — 2 or 1 

X = +V— 2, — V— 2, +1, or —I 
Checking. X 4 + X 2 — 2 
+ V32 

-V-2 

+ 1 
I 

( + V-2) 4 + (V-2) 2 -2 — 

4 — 2 — 2 = 

(-y-2) 4 +(V-2) 2 -2 = 

4 2 2 = O 

(+l) 4 +(+0 2 -2 

I + 1—2=0 
(-l) 4 +(-l) 2 -2 = 

1 + 1—2 = 

Case 5. A few weeks ago my wife reported to me that 
some bugs were stripping the tomato vines. I here had a 
problem. I was supposed to find a method of destroying the 



CONTROL OF VALUES 191 

bugs. A visit was made to the garden to see exactly what 
the pests looked like. They were very large and seem- 
ingly very hungry. What elements were given ? In this case 
a rather hazy knowledge of poisons — and the bugs. I con- 
sulted my neighbor who was an expert horticulturist. His 
advice was to knock them off one by one and kill them, 
since they enjoyed and seemed to thrive upon all known 
poisons. This I tried, there, fortunately, being few. The 
vines were not molested further, as was shown by occa- 
sional examination. 

Here again we have the old form of the arithmetic prob- 
lem, something to be found, something given, a solution, 
and the checking up. Only in this case the solution was 
found by asking some one else, and the checking up was 
done by watching the plants to see if the solution (the kill- 
ing of each bug) was successful. 

Case 4. The first born, aged sixty days, cries at 2 a. m. 
The fond and devoted parents rise to stop the wails. Per- 
haps it is cold. Rapid searching determines that it is warm. 
Perhaps the colic? No, its feet are warm. Maybe a pin. 
No, only safety pins are used. Can it be lonesome ? Happy 
thought. The male parent takes it in his arms and walks 
the floor. 'The tumult and the shouting dies" — the baby 
sleeps. 

Here we have again a problem, little knowledge, sev- 
eral guesses at a solution and a checking up. Probably 
later better solutions and more accurate theories will be 
applied. But for the present walking the floor is a satis- 
factory solution. 

Case 5. The following extract gives a graphic account 
of a state of mind that is too common in our schools. It 
is taken from a school story called The Richerton Medal, 
which is the work of a practical teacher. The scene is a 



I9 2 METHODS OF TEACHING 

class room in an elementary school. Mr. Leckie, the teacher 
of the class (Standard VI, average age about 13), pro- 
pounds a problem in arithmetic: 

"If 7 and 2 make 10, what will 12 and 6 make?" 

A look of dismay passed over the seventy-odd faces as 
this apparently meaningless question was read. Everybody 
knew that 7 and 2 didn't make 10, so that was nonsense. 
But even if it had been sense, what was the use of it? 
For everybody knew that 12 and 6 make 18 — nobody needed 
the help of 7 and 2 to find that out. Nobody knew exactly 
how to treat this strange problem. 

Fat John Thompson from the foot of the class raised 
his hand, and when asked what he wanted, said: 

"Please, sir, what rule is it?" 

Mr. Leckie smiled as he answered: 

"You must find out for yourself, John ; what rule do you 
think it is, now?" 

But John had nothing to say to such foolishness. "What's 
the use of giving a fellow a count 1 and not telling him 
the rule?" — that's what John thought. But as it was a 
heinous sin in Standard VI to have "nothing on your slate," 
John proceeded to put down various figures and dots, and 
then went on to divide and multiply them time about. 

He first multiplied 7 by 2 and got 14. Then, dividing by 
10, he got if. But he didn't like the look of this. He 
hated fractions. Besides, he knew from bitter experience 
that whenever he had fractions in his answer he was wrong. 

So he multiplied 14 by 10 this time, and got 140, which 
certainly looked much better, and caused less trouble. 

He thought that 12 ought to come out of 140; they both 
looked nice, easy, good-natured numbers. But when he 

1 Scottish : any kind of arithmetical exercise in school work. 



CONTROL OF VALUES 193 

found that the answer was 1 1 and 8 over, he knew that he 
had not yet hit upon the right tack ; for remainders are just 
as fatal in answers as fractions. At least, that was John's 
experience. 

Accordingly, he rubbed out this false move into division, 
and fell back upon multiplication. When he had multiplied 
140 by 12, he found the answer 1680, which seemed to him 
a fine, big, sensible sort of answer. 

Then he began to wonder whether division was going to 
work this time. As he proceeded to divide by 6, his eyes 
gleamed with triumph. 

"Six into 48, 8 an 1 nothin' over, -2-8-0 an' no remainder. 
I've got it!" 

Here poor John fell back in his seat, folded his arms, 
and waited patiently till his less fortunate fellows had 
finished. 

James 1 knew from the "if" at the beginning of the ques- 
tion that it must be proportion ; and since there were five 
terms, it must be compound proportion. That was all plain 
enough, so he started, following his rule. 

"If 7 gives 10, what will 2 give? — less." 

Then he put down 
7:21:10: 

"Then if 12 gives 10, what will 6 give? — again less." So 
he put down this time 
12:6 

Then he went on loyally to follow his rule : multiplied all 
the second and third terms together, and duly divided by the 
product of the first two terms. This gave the very unprom- 
ising answer 1 3/7. 

1 The clever boy of the class. 



194 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



He did not at all see how 12 and 6 could make 1 3/7. 
But that wasn't his lookout. Let the rule see to that." 1 

Dewey 2 quotes a more complicated case: "In washing 
tumblers in hot soapsuds and placing them mouth down- 
ward on a plate, bubbles appeared on the outside of the 
mouth of the tumblers and then went inside. Why? The 
presence of bubbles suggests air, which I note must come 
from inside the tumbler. I see that the soapy water on 
the plate prevents escape of the air save as it may be 
caught in bubbles. But why should air leave the tumbler? 
There was no substance entering to force it out. It must 
have expanded. It expands by increase of heat or by de- 
crease of pressure, or by both. Could the air have become 
heated after the tumbler was taken from the hot suds? 
Clearly not the air that was already entangled in the water. 
If heated air was the cause, cold air must have entered in 
transferring the tumblers from the suds to the plate. I 
test to see if this supposition is true by taking several more 
tumblers out. Some I shake so as to make sure of entrap- 
ping cold air in them. Some I take out holding mouth 
downward in order to prevent cold air from entering. Bub- 
bles appear on the outside of every one of the former 
and on none of the latter. I must be right in my inference. 
Air from the outside must have been expanded by the 
heat of the tumbler, which explains the appearance of the 
bubbles on the outside. 

"But why do they then go inside? Cold contracts. The 
tumbler cooled and also the air inside it. Tension was re- 
moved, and hence bubbles appeared inside. To be sure of 
this, I test by placing a cup of ice on the tumbler while 
the bubbles are still forming outside. They soon reverse." 

1 Adams, Exposition and Illustration in Teaching, pp. 176-8. 

2 How We Think, pp. 70-71. 



CONTROL OF VALUES 



195 



Case 7. Goodyear, the discoverer of the process of 
vulcanizing rubber, worked for ten years before he struck 
upon the complete process. 

We are told that he went to New York to dispose of an 
idea for a life preserver and while there he was advised by 
a rubber merchant that if some way could be found for 
making raw rubber withstand both heat and cold so that it 
would not be sticky in warm weather nor would crack in 
cold weather, there was a fortune to be made. He had 
little knowledge of mechanics or chemistry but was never- 
theless interested in the problem, and upon his return he set 
to work to discover the process. 

There is great human interest in his story, in his priva- 
tions and poverty inflicted upon himself and his family 
while the idea obsessed him. This we cannot describe here. 
But the main features of his solution can be given. 

His biographer states that he first tried mechanical mixing 
and kneading of the warmed raw product, but it still re- 
mained sticky in warm weather. Then he tried mixing 
various chemicals, such as magnesia, with the raw material 
while kneading. This likewise proved unsuccessful. Then 
he tried boiling this magnesia mixture in quicklime and 
water. This worked for a while under his limited tests 
but it was found that any acid, even of very slight strength, 
such as apple juice, produced the troublesome stickiness. 
He next tried mixing it with nitric acid, and his hopes were 
raised so high that he tried to get, and indeed secured, a 
government contract for making rubber mailbags. Here, 
however, he found that the heavy material needed for the 
bags broke, cracked, and still produced stickiness. This 
almost completely discouraged him, but he continued, and 
among many other things tried kneading sulphur into the 
raw product. His results were better but not successful. 



196 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



The final idea came by accident one day, when in talking 
to a friend by the kitchen stove, he let the piece he was 
displaying drop on the stove lid. As soon as he could he 
scraped it off, but not soon enough to keep him from seeing 
that the heat, combined with the mixing of the sulphur, had 
added the necessary factor. After a time he perfected 
conditions for heating, and to-day we have vulcanized rub- 
ber, though the inventor, with his meagre business ability, 
reaped a very slight reward for the privation and destitution 
of his family and himself. 

These seven instances have been given to show con- 
cretely the processes by which control is reached. Sum- 
marized, there are three main steps in the process : the recog- 
nition of a problem, an attempt at its solution, and testing 
it out. The first is called defining the problem, the second 
forming hypotheses, and the third verification. 

A very simple process, this, in the abstract, but frequently 
difficult to apply successfully to concrete situations. 

Defining the Problem. — When a problem faces a person 
it is frequently indefinite. He knows that something is 
wrong, but before he can go ahead intelligently he must 
know more exactly just what is the problem. In the arith- 
metic problem above, the thing desired is to find how much 
U. P. stock can be bought ; but more exactly it is to find the 
amount of U. P. stock that can be bought for U. S. Steel, 
with brokerage on both transactions. In the algebra ex- 
ample the problem is to solve the equation, but it narrows 
down to the problem of factoring. The problem of the 
tomato plants was to keep them from being stripped ; more 
definitely it was to get rid of the bugs, still more definitely 
how to exterminate them, and later how to knock them off 
and kill them. The parents with the baby had the problem 
of quieting it, more definitely, they wished to know what 



CONTROL OF VALUES 197 

was the trouble, and finally by chance they hit on a method 
without ever knowing quite what the trouble was. Adams' 
boys had not the least conception of any problem. They 
worked out blindly till they reached something. Dewey's 
student had the problem of explaining the presence of bub- 
bles, then of bubbles inside and outside. Goodyear had 
the big problem of making rubber commercially usable, more 
definitely he had to determine how to keep it from being 
sticky and cracking. 

Except in the very simplest cases this process of defini- 
tion is gradual. To an experienced doctor the diagnosis of 
many diseases is easy. He enters the room, sees the tem- 
perature, takes a pulse, feels the painful parts, and at once 
says, "It is so and so." An inexperienced doctor has to 
work it down point by point until he knows exactly what 
is wrong. The amateur whose motor stops knows first, that 
something is wrong, and his chief trouble is in locating 
the difficulty. An expert may look it over and say at once : 
"You had better put in your spark plug." If a boy is 
troublesome in school, the teacher's difficulty is to know just 
what is wrong. Is this nervousness, bad air, poor health, 
or just meanness? 

The Hypothesis. — When the problem is being located 
guesses are beginning to form. In the arithmetic problem, 
the pupil is figuring out the method of handling it. So in 
the algebra question. When my wife mentions stripped 
tomato vines I at once think : "Bugs — how shall I kill 
them ; surely by poison." But I have heard that there is one 
kind of bug that ordinary poisons will not kill. So I dis- 
card that hypothesis and consult the expert. When the baby 
cries the parents think of a hot-water bottle, or of putting 
it on its stomach and dandling it up and down on parental 
knees, or running over the clothes to find misplaced pins, 



I9 8 METHODS OF TEACHING 

or of walking up and down. These all naturally suggest 
themselves. 

How we happen to hit upon these hypotheses is not 
clearly known. We may say we make associations but that 
explains nothing. If we had a rule for reaching these 
guesses easily and unfailingly, inventors would starve more 
extensively even than they used to, for every man could 
be made original by training. 

Some people have a knack for making wise guesses. 
Others, by effort, can never do it. But for the ordinary 
person, pupil or adult, there is no royal road. We have 
just to sit down and think about it. Miller says : "All 
that we can do in the way of controlling this part of the 
thinking process is to familiarize ourselves so thoroughly 
with all the facts relevant to our problem that we are in the 
mental mood, or attitude, for the associative mechanism to 
work freely through all the material, and to suggest subtle 
relationships which we have not hitherto suspected, or to 
bring out into reflective consciousness connections which had 
hitherto been vague and unreflective." We have to go over 
and over the material, try out any likely guess, and perhaps 
some time the right hypothesis will pop out of nowhere. 
Goodyear, for instance, by accident let the rubber fall on 
the stove. Archimedes, we are told, took a swim. The 
mind bent on solving a problem is no respecter of places. 
It keeps turning things over and over. 

Our trouble as teachers is that in 90 per cent of the cases 
we do not let the pupils do enough thoughtful guessing. 
We are not exactly anxious to show off our knowledge to 
the pupils. It is not really that we are so good-hearted 
that we hate to see them worried or confused. This is 
largely because we are in a rut made by countless genera- 
tions of book teachers who have assumed that the human 



CONTROL OF VALUES 



199 



mind is a barrel into which should be dropped little portions 
of learning. But no pupil ever amounts to much who 
does not wrestle with unsolved problems. Fortunately for 
the generations as they rise, they get a good deal of prac- 
tice in this outside of school. But is it not a shame that 
the school which is manned with experts in education should 
so completely neglect this phase of human originality? 

Good hypotheses may be found on the first trial. In the 
arithmetic question, if the pupil has worked a good many 
similar problems he may hit upon the right solution at 
once. The more familiar a student is with his problem 
the more likely is he to judge right the very first time. 

But again the correct trial may be the last of a series. 
Goodyear worked for ten years to achieve the guess that 
made him a benefactor to the race. Many a boy has worked 
for days upon a problem of geometry, trying first one and 
then another, before getting the correct solution. 1 

In Scott's book on Social Education, mentioned above, 
in Chapter VIII, we have a fine set of concrete examples 
showing how children work out their own solutions. For 
a certain period in the day, the pupils were allowed to 
select their own problems and to work them out in groups 
with the understanding that what they did was their own 
affair, and that they should call in the teacher only when 
it was absolutely necessary. It would be impossible to give 
an adequate description of the work in our few pages. But 
references for class reading are given at the end of this 
chapter. 

Verification. — How do we determine which is the cor- 
rect hypothesis? In mathematics we check, and if this 
process is satisfactory we consider the solution reached to 

1 In ordinary language the correct hypothesis when carried out and 
put into practice is called the solution. 



200 METHODS OF TEACHING 

be correct. This is a highly intellectualized and exact method 
of determination. There is no possible loophole for error 
to creep in if the method is correctly used. 

In certain other exact work with concrete materials, such 
as in cabinet making, verification is made by seeing if the 
apparatus works. A plan for making a joint is supposed 
to be correct if the joint does all that is expected of it. 
In a rough and tumble political debate a picturesque old 
gentleman discredited his opponent as follows : "My learned 
opponent has brilliant ideas other than those he is now 
giving voice to. Once he made a mouse-trap, by scientific 
methods; it looked pretty; it was pretty; it was painted 
and made out of first-class wire — a perfect mouse-trap — 
with one exception. He never could persuade a mouse to 
go inside." 

Again, in cooking, verification is determined to a great 
extent by palatability. If the bread tastes good, it is sup- 
posed to be well made. The cook in trying to make a new 
dish makes guesses as to amounts of ingredients, heat, and 
time of cooking. It is a success if it pleases her guests. So 
with painting and all forms of aesthetic problems, the solu- 
tion is correct if it pleases the taste of those who know. 
Color schemes are hypotheses — very much so. And they 
are successful if when carried out they produce a pleasing 
effect. 

These standards of taste are not so rigorous as mathe- 
matical standards ; for the old proverb still holds true : De 
gustibus non disputandum est — one can never argue about 
tastes. Hence the opinion of experts in any line is accepted 
as the court of last resort. 

In more abstract fields, verification consists in lack of 
contradiction. When a scholar reaches a conclusion, i. e.. 
arrives at what he thinks is a good hypothesis, he stops and 



CONTROL OF VALUES 201 

tries it out in every possible case to see if there is anything 
that contradicts it. Darwin says, in his autobiography, that 
his attention was always riveted by what seemed to be a 
possible objection to his theories. It is in this way that a 
careful student checks up his work. We are told that 
Newton laid aside his theory of gravitation because certain 
measurements about the moon contradicted it. Twenty 
years later other investigators made more accurate measure- 
ments which coincided with Newton's theories, and, this 
final objection being removed, he made his theory known to 
the world. 

In seeking for possible objections, the scholar will not 
wait for them to come. He goes out after them. He seeks 
for experimental corroboration — as in the case cited above, 
when the student placed ice on the top of the glass. 

Pupils, however, seldom go to these lengths. If the 
hypothesis seems to satisfy all conditions lying around, they 
rest contented. Adams' boy, who tried the rule of three, 
got an answer that he could not understand, as he said 
"the book could look out for that." 

It is, therefore, the pleasant task of the teacher to bring 
up objections which lie within the experience of the pupils, 
for if the investigation is worth while to the pupil the 
objection will set him to work again. And pupils should 
be encouraged to take the initiative in searching for reason- 
able objections. 

Verification and Problems. — One of the best ways of 
making pupils think is to have them verify their results. 
This is, again, the value of Spencer's "natural consequences" 
idea. In the commission problem on p. 177, above, the 
pupils carried out their method to the end and found it to 
be absurd. The check for arithmetic problems makes the 
pupils go over the work again with care. Let practice 



202 METHODS OF TEACHING 

teachers try out their principles upon live pupils and they 
begin for the first time to understand the problems and 
methods of teaching. Wild guessing by an erratic pupil is 
steadied by requiring him to carry out his guesses to verify 
them. 

Appreciation. — At this point, the control of the value 
now being completed, appreciation enters. When an opera- 
tion of importance is completed and found to be satisfactory 
by all the tests, experience stops and appreciates. If it is 
satisfactory we go back over it, perhaps, but certainly we 
enjoy it actively. The pupils should, likewise, be encouraged 
in subtle ways to dwell upon a good piece of work for a 
while. It is an excellent thing to talk it over a bit, with 
little fear of making egotists out of them ; for the next 
minute they will be running into some difficulty that will 
steady them. 

Data. — In all this process of reasoning data have been 
assumed. Everybody comes to a problem with all his past 
experience. He also has certain factors in the situation 
itself, which, taken together, is all he has at hand to help 
him make his guess. 

Now, some people have had much relevant experience 
when they approach a particular problem ; others have little. 
In the mathematical examples, so frequently referred to, the 
pupils have a good deal of definite relevant experience and 
data. In the case of the tomato pests the amateur had little 
data, but the expert had much. The parents of the crying 
baby had very little definite information. Adams' boys had 
little that they could apply. Dewey's student was pretty 
well trained. Goodyear had very little at the beginning, but 
this steadily grew. It is impossible for any person to write 
down or state all the possible data he has at hand. 



CONTROL OF VALUES 203 

Summary. — For the control of values we have systems 
of instincts and reflexes, habits, ideas, facts and principles, 
ideals, prejudices, tastes and attitudes. These are acquired 
(except the first two) in response to needs and as the solu- 
tion of problems. In this process of solution the problem 
is located, data moved into the field of action, guesses made 
at solution, and eliminated or accepted after verification. 
In this way the mind works normally and in this way the 
pupil should be taught. 

Series of Problems. — One important fact should be 
brought out, in conclusion. There is not merely one prob- 
lem in a situation ; there are hundreds. One follows the 
other till the whole is completed. Two illustrations will 
make this clear. The first is quoted from a student's paper 
and analyzes a problem met outside school. The main 
problem was, "How to establish a church which we and 
other children would truly like to attend?" The following 
series arose: 

(1) "Were other children interested in this? How could 
we interest the children of our own neighborhood in it? 
We found that several of them were, that a number of 
them would come out of curiosity, that a number of them 
did not like to go to church with the grown-ups, and for 
one reason or another some ten or twelve promised to come 
at first. 

(2) "Where and when should we hold services? We 
interested our parents, and my mother donated a back room 
upstairs, on the condition that we should fix it up. We would 
hold services Sunday morning, as that seemed to be the 
most convenient time. 

(3) "What sort of music should we have? We pur- 
chased an old organ from the parents of one of the children. 



204 METHODS OF TEACHING 

How should we pay for it? After careful thought we 
solved this problem by giving several magic lantern shows 
at our house, charging a penny admission. 

(4) "Who should be preacher? My brother seemed 
most fitted on account of his earnestness, his interest, and 
his being some two years older than the rest of us. 

(5) "Who should be choir and who congregation? A 
very serious problem. It was decided to alternate, each half 
should be choir one Sunday and congregation the next. 

(6) ''Where should we get our seats? The problem of 
constructing some rough wooden ones arose, but instead we 
obtained some straight chairs (each one obtained his own 
seat) and at our house we provided a few for the visitors. 

(7) "Problem of constructing a platform for the minis- 
ter. Each of us helped. Minor problems arose here, such as 
joining the boards together, width of platform, carpeting, etc. 

(8) "Problem of choosing officers of the church, treas- 
urer, ushers, etc. This was solved by appointing a com- 
mittee who should select them. 

(9) "Further problems of maintaining interest in the 
church, learning to pray 'in public,' of learning hymns, etc., 
were disposed of in similar ways." 

In school, likewise, the same process occurs. We find it 
in such a simple problem in arithmetic as the following: 
Find the cost of 12 dozen oranges at 50 cents a dozen. 
The following problems arise : ( 1 ) What is to be found ? 
Cost of 12 dozen oranges. (2) What is given? (a) 12 
dozen; (b) 50 cents a dozen. (3) How find the cost? 
Multiply 12 by 50 cents. (4) How do this? From multi- 
plication fact, 12 X 50 = 600, cost is $6.00. Again, in his- 
tory, De Garmo says, 1 "For instance, in the case of the 

1 Processes of Instruction, p. 82. 



CONTROL OF VALUES 



205 



frontier the main problem before the class would be to deter- 
mine the influence of the frontier in American History. 
About this problem will cluster the gathering of historical 
facts, the influences that have a causal power, and the 
various channels through which these causes produce their 
diverse effects. In other words, the main problem will 
break up into a number of subsidiary ones, as, for example, 
what influence had the trapper's frontier upon that of the 
rancher? What modifying influences had the settlements 
immediately beyond the 'fall line' upon those below it? How 
did the frontier regions control legislation for internal im- 
provements? for the distribution of the public domain? for 
protection to new industries, etc. ?" 

Here, again, the teacher may help materially by having 
the children stop and think. To repeat, one great danger 
is that the teacher is likely to make the steps so easy and 
so much alike that the pupil is busy all the time solving 
little problems and is never brought face to face with those 
that would baffle him for the time being.. It is, of course, 
just as disastrous never to help him. The only point in- 
sisted upon here is that he be left to think for himself for a 
while, and then, when he cannot discover the difficulty or 
find an hypothesis, a hint may be given. 

References for Class Reading 

Creighton, An Introductory Logic, pp. 230-240. 
De Garmo, Principles of Secondary Education, Vol. II 
pp. 28-32. 

Dewey, How We Think, pp. 68-78. 

Earhart, Teaching Children to Study, pp. 26-36. 

Miller, Psychology of Thinking, pp. 260-267. 

Scott, Social Education, pp. 102-130, 185-193, and others. 



206 METHODS OF TEACHING 



Exercises 



i. Make a list of ideals and show how each affects 
conduct. 

2. Of what use is knowledge? What is the fallacy in 
teaching it as an end in itself? Find references to this in 
earlier chapters. 

3. To what extent is it true that we see only what we 
want to see? Why is it hard to believe good of an enemy, 
or to recognize that adverse decisions of an umpire are fair ? 

4. Name ten good prejudices. Justify each. 

5. Give five examples of the deficiency of problems in 
school work ; five from out of school life. 

6. Give five cases in which you have made several 
hypotheses before reaching the solution of a problem. 

7. It is objected that children will waste time if allowed 
to experiment on problems, and that the year's work cannot 
be covered. What are your answers to this objection, if you 
have any? 

8. Can Scott's examples be applied to regular school 
work? Explain your answer in detail. 

9. Give five examples of the use of verification in each 
of the following: writing, geography, spelling, history, 
physiology, and drawing. Select individual cases from 
your own experience as teacher or as pupil. 

10. Select a complex problem in school work and show 
how it breaks up into a series of problems before it is all 
solved. 

11. Give five cases of where pupils have not verified 
correctly, and of where the teacher might then have driven 
them into a corner by bringing out the weakness in their 
process of verification. 



CONTROL OF VALUES 207 

12. Collect data and tabulate them for the solution of 
this problem : Which of the phases, problem, data, hypoth- 
esis and verification comes first? Can you give them any 
definite order? Illustrate. 



CHAPTER XIII 

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND LOGICAL OKGANIZATION 

Section i. Introductory 

In the last chapter we analyzed the process of reaching 
the solution of a problem. 

In manv of the examples it was clear that many ste^s 
were taken which would be unnecessary the next time the 
solution was sought. Goodyear tried many plans before 
he found the right one, and, after finding it, he spent much 
time perfecting it. Now, when people make vulcanized 
rubber they use his perfected plan, not his various attempts. 
Probably the average rubber goods manufacturer does not 
know about these earlier attempts. When tomato bugs 
worry again it will not be necessary to think of poison or 
ask the neighbors. The amateur will go out to the garden 
and knock them off with a paddle. 

These first tortuous, uncertain gropings may be called 
"psychological," for want of a better term. The later per- 
fected and polished organization may be appropriately called 
"logical," meaning by that a perfected structure. 

For some years the psychological point of view has been 
vigorously seeking a foothold and has demonstrated its 
usefulness in a number of ways. A few of these will be 
taken up in this chapter and the next. 

Section 2. The Daily Lesson 
In an earlier chapter the structure of subject-matter was 
discussed, and at that time it was pointed out that the 

208 



PSYCHOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION 209 

structure should be logically arranged and in such a way 
as to fulfill its function. At this point the relation of the 
logical to the psychological order of the subject-matter may 
be discussed in connection with the question, — Should the 
recitation follow, point by point, the logical outline of the 
day's lesson (the structure) ? 

It is, of course, impossible to lay down a definite rule. 
But if the logical outline is followed closely there is little 
opportunity for any original thinking by the pupil. For if 
it be true that the adult who first created the outline did 
so after experimentation, it is evident that a child could 
not construct it without a similar tortuous method. And 
hence, if the child is to be allowed the chance to think it 
out for himself, we need not be surprised if the logical 
outline is not followed. 1 

Illustration. — The following lesson was organized and 
taught to a class of second year students in the high school, 
in order to get a concrete illustration of the fact that in 
developing a lesson, fairly well organized from the logical 
standpoint, a teacher may not follow the logical outline 
step by step, if the pupils are allowed a reasonable amount 
of initiative and self-direction in attacking the problem. 
This particular subject-matter is composed of a number of 
topics which are more or less disconnected, and do not each 
grow out of the preceding. 

It was taught at the beginning of a study of English 
history in order that the students might become acquainted 
with the geographical conditions of the British Isles, and 
might get some idea of their outstanding local and inter- 
national characteristics. The subject-matter to l?e taught 

1 For an excellent philosophical discussion of this whole matter, 
the reader is referred to Dewey, The Child and the Curriculum, 
University of Chicago Press. 



210 METHODS OF TEACHING 

was organized by the teacher in the following relatively 
loose way. 

Function of subject-matter is to solve the following prob- 
lem : What is the relation between the geographical condi- 
tions and the navy, industries, wealth, cities, and national 
life of the British Isles? 

Structure of subject-matter. The solution is made up of 
the following contributions : — 

I. Geographical conditions : 

1. Islands (isolated from mainland), — 

a. in size 120,000 sq. mi. = (Missouri and Arkansas). 

b. in population 40 million = (Missouri and Arkan- 
sas, + 35 million). 

c. many excellent harbors on coast line. 

2. Mountainous in parts and level in parts. 

3. Great deposits of iron and coal close together. 

II. Items affected by geographical conditions : 

1. Navy largest in the world — kept as large as any two 
others, necessary for protection, — 

a. from invasion — I, 1. 

b. from starvation — I, 1, a, and b. 

c. for shipping — I, I, c, and II, 2, c, and d. 

2. Industries, — 

a. fishing — I, 1. 

b. agriculture (small for dense population) — I, 2. 

c. shipping (greatest in the world) — I, 1, c, and II, 
2, d. 

d. manufacturing (second in quantity only to the 
United States) great because of shipping facilities, 
low wages, free trade, and skilled workmen, cheap 
fuel. — I, 1, a, and I, 3. 

3. Wealth greatest per capita in the world. Money 
invested all over the world — II, 2, c, and d. 



PSYCHOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION 2 II 

4. Cities — I, 1, c. In England, London and Liverpool; 
in Scotland, Glasgow and Edinburgh ; in Ireland, 
Belfast and Dublin. 

5. Nationalities — a. Wales, because of mountains. 

b. Scotland, Lowlands of English 
origin. Highlands different be- 
cause of mountains. 

c. England. 

d. Ireland, because of being an 
island. 

The following report was given by the teacher: "I kept 
the outline in mind, but proceeded to let the pupils attack 
the problem in whatever way occurred to them. After a 
short conversation about the study of English history and 
its value for American people, I unrolled the map, and after 
they had looked at it for a moment gave them the direct 
problem, 'What are the things that make the history of one 
nation different from that of another?' I expected to receive 
two replies, The people of the nation,' and The geograph- 
ical conditions/ The pupils gave the second one first, and 
that being the point I was after, I let the other go. I had 
them illustrate this from any source they could, and they 
spoke of Spain when discovering America, of Greece, and 
of China, while I suggested Switzerland. I immediately 
followed with another problem, 'What are the geographical 
conditions of the British Isles that have affected its history?' 
I expected to receive the reply, Tts being an island and 
isolated from the mainland,' but from the previous discus- 
sion, and I presume from its configuration as shown on the 
map, one boy said, Tts good harbors.' This required a 
pointing out of the harbors and, in connection with them, 

Note. — The numbers after the points in II indicate those points 
in I which have an influence upon them. 



212 METHODS OF TEACHING 

of the chief cities of the two islands, London, Liverpool, 
Glasgow, and Belfast, to which I added Edinburgh and 
Dublin, the capitals of Scotland and Ireland, because of 
their future usefulness. This brought up, by some small 
intervening steps, the question of shipping, as implied in 
the idea of good harbors, and I gave them a number of 
facts about the importance of the shipping of England. This 
line of attack was now exhausted for the purpose of 
recitation. 

"Then I returned to the original problem, 'What other 
geographical conditions affect the history of the British 
Isles ?' The answer was, 'The mountains,' and we proceeded 
to point out that the islands were level in part and moun- 
tainous in part. When asked how this affected the history, 
they saw by lines that were drawn that the mountains in 
the west of Great Britain were coterminous with the Welsh 
nation, and that the mountains in the north were the home 
of the Highland Scotch, while the level land was populated 
by the English and Lowland Scotch. It was pointed out 
that the Cheviot Hills mark a political barrier, although the 
Lowlanders of Scotland are of the same origin as the people 
of England. Then, to bring in the Irish nation, I asked, 
'What part of the British Isles remains unaccounted for?' 
whereupon they mentioned Ireland, and explained in terms 
of the geographical conditions that it is an isolated island. 
At this point I thought it wise to show them the size of 
England in terms of Missouri and Arkansas, and to com- 
pare the population of these two areas in order to show 
the density of population of the British Isles. This led me 
to ask the question, 'How do these people live?' and they 
replied from general information, 'By manufacturing.' Then 
I asked, 'Where do they get their fuel?' and we discussed 
the extent of the coal deposits of England. When the ques- 



PSYCHOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION 



213 



tion of raw materials arose, the fact was brought out that 
there is much iron in England but that the bulk of raw 
materials is brought from other countries. This re- 
emphasized the question of the shipping industry. I 
repeated the question, 'What other industries have they?' 
and the students suggested agriculture; but they were of 
the opinion that since England is so small and the popula- 
tion so great, they would be unable to feed themselves, and 
would therefore be dependent upon other nations, and liable 
to hard times or even starvation in war. 

'Tor the moment I forgot the industry of fishing, and 
returned to the original problem, 'What other geographical 
conditions would affect its history?' We had secured by 
direct questions the geographical facts that the islands have 
excellent harbors and that they are mountainous in parts and 
level in parts ; we had secured, in following out these two 
lines, the geographical facts of its size and density of popu- 
lation, and of its deposits of iron and coal. The final fact 
that it is an island and isolated from the mainland, which 
I supposed they would give first, they had some difficulty 
in seeing, probably because it was so obvious, so I had to 
call their attention to it directly. This was done by the 
question, 'What advantage is it to England that it is in- 
sular?' and they replied that other nations could not invade 
it. I pointed out the flaw in this statement ; viz., that other 
nations might invade it by the simple expedient of getting 
ships, whereupon they said that England would not be 
invaded if she had a navy large enough. We talked about 
the size of the navy, and when I asked the advantage of a 
large navy to England they were able to bring together 
from the tangle of our discussion up to date the three facts 
as given in the outline. 

"At this point the reader will notice, by checking up with 



2i 4 METHODS OF TEACHING 

the outline, that we had covered all the items we had in- 
tended to take up, except those relating to fishing and the 
wealth of England. 

"If the lesson had been left at this point the work would 
have been covered, because we had seen the relationship 
between the different items and the geographical conditions. 
But, while covered, it would have been in a relatively un- 
usable shape because not properly organized. And so our 
next problem was that of logical organization. We did this 
by two summaries. First, we made a list of the geograph- 
ical condition, and of the mere facts concerning the navy, 
industries, etc. In this summary we brought in the industry 
of fishing, which had been previously left out, as noted 
above, but did not bring in the facts concerning the wealth 
of the country, because, after all, it was related more directly 
to the industries than to the geographical conditions. In 
the second summary we took each item contained in divi- 
sion II and related it to the geographical conditions in 
division I, by the following type of question, which I had 
the students frame: 'What geographical conditions affect 
the nationalities of the British Isles?' 'What conditions 
affect the navy ?' etc. It will be seen that this summary not 
only related the items of division II to the geographical 
conditions, but related them to one another. 

"As a home assignment, the students were asked to synop- 
size the facts as given, in their logical order; and the 
worth of their work was gauged by their approximation 
to the logical outline as given in the preceding pages, which 
the students had not seen. I had intended to ask the fol- 
lowing questions, which related to the problems of American 
conditions, but because of lack of time could not do it in 
that recitation: i. Do these facts throw any light upon the 
reason why the United States thinks it requires a navy? 



PSYCHOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION 



215 



2. Might we expect the United States to divide itself into a 
group of separate nations because of geographical condi- 
tions? 3. If free trade is good for England, is the United 
States wise in having a high tariff ?" 

Suggestions. — The following observations might be 
made upon this lesson as typical of the teaching of a unit 
composed of a problem whose solution consists of a number 
of relatively discrete facts. 

(1) If the pupils are given the maximum of liberty in 
their attack upon a problem, the development of the solu- 
tion is not likely to follow either the logical outline or the 
order which the teacher has thought probable, no matter 
how extended his experience. He cannot foresee what 
point the students will attack first. By reference to the 
logical outline it will be seen that the order in which the 
points were taken up were these : harbors, cities, shipping, 
mountains, nationalities, size and population, manufacturing, 
shipping, other industries, agriculture, island as isolated 
from mainland, and navy. If the recitation had followed 
the logical outline it would have been a serious loss to the 
amount of actual thinking, experimenting, and relating that 
the students were able to put into the lesson. 

(2) For the subject-matter to have its maximum value 
the recitation cannot be considered complete without a sum- 
mary in which every part of the structure is related to its 
function. 

(3) When the student is given the maximum of liberty 
of attack, the recitation is broken up into a series of prob- 
lems and each step of the series grows out of the preceding. 
It will be noted that this recitation returned to the original 
problem three times, giving three groups of problems. 

(4) The logical outline of the subject-matter is valuable 
for the teacher to use (a) as a standard of solution of the 



2 i6 METHODS OF TEACHING 

main problem, and (b) to keep him from going- too far afield 
in the recitation. He is held unconsciously or consciously to 
the main content of the solution. 

(5) In a recitation, no matter how well such discrete 
subject-matter may be prepared and memorized by the 
teacher, frequently one part is omitted in the development 
under the stress of changing points of emphasis. 

(6) In the summary the teacher is justified, while gather- 
ing up the subject-matter into a logical organization, in 
filling out those points which have been inadvertently 
omitted. 

(7) In short, if the pupil is to have the maximum of 
liberty, the teacher must be extremely careful not to demand 
in the development the following of a cut-and-dried order 
of solution. That is secured later in the lesson by means of 
the summary. 

In view of the fact that the teacher who does not follow 
his logical outline in a cut-and-dried way cannot foresee 
what order of points the pupils will take, of what should 
his planning consist? It seems that the best method of 
procedure for the teacher in preparing the development is 
to think over all possible difficulties that may arise in the 
children's getting hold of the subject-matter, and plan out 
how these will be made clear to them. By doing this he 
will, of course, be compelled to work out many difficulties 
that will never occur, but he will be able to cope with all 
that do occur. Nor is this an amount of preparation in 
which the teacher exceeds that of other professional men. 
One of the greatest lawyers of the country attributes his 
success to the fact that when studying a case he always 
worked out all the possible lines of objection so fully that 
over sixty per cent, of his material was never used. But 



PSYCHOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION 217 

the plan safeguarded him against failure and assured his 
success. 

So, likewise, the teacher must anticipate all the difficulties, 
and may, also, work out a probable plan of how the lesson 
should proceed. This has advantages, especially for a 
novice; he is not entirely at sea; he has some plan to 
follow. But the teacher should not feel that he must follow 
this, whether occasion warrants or not. The plan should be 
fluent and easily suited to his pupils' convenience and best 
work. 

The Summary. — The logical organization is arrived at 
in the summary. This is always the point at which the 
pupil is asked to state the main points discussed. It occurs 
whenever the development has gone far enough to make it 
desirable. And it is advisable to make it whenever the 
children have covered so much material that there is danger 
of their forgetting. Sometimes one will have summaries at 
a half dozen points in a recitation, sometimes only at the 
end. The summary should be made by the pupils unless the 
lesson has been a very difficult one. In the lesson preceding, 
the summary was not made till the end. 

Section 3. Specific Subjects 

In presenting the facts in any subject, the problem 
emerges again. Should the pupil take them up in their 
logical order, or in their psychological order P 1 

In those subjects in which a good deal of incidental study 
has already occurred, the logical order may be followed. 
Such is, for instance, the case with history or grammar in 
the eighth grade. But in those subjects which are relatively 

1 F. Burk, Genetic vs. Logical Order in Drawing, Ped. Sem., Ill, 
296-323. 



2i8 METHODS OF TEACHING 

new to the pupils, new both as to principles and terminology, 
the psychological approach can be made with advantage. 
Two or three illustrations will make this clear. 

Primary Reading. — In primary reading, the logical 
order is letters, syllables, words, and sentences. But it 
has been proved beyond the shadow of a doubt that the 
psychological point of approach is through the word, or, 
better still, through the sentence. Sentences, words, letters, 
syllables, is the order of strongest motivation, but this is not 
the logical order. 

Geography. — Again, in studying climate in physical 
geography, the logical order as laid down in one text is the 
following: (i) The earth as a Planet. (2) The Atmos- 
phere. (3) Distribution of Temperature. (4) General 
Circulation of the Atmosphere. (5) Storms. (6) The 
Moisture of the Atmosphere. (7) Weather and Climate. 
The teacher may, however, vary this order as follows : 
A. (1) What makes wind blow? This leads to a dis- 
cussion of temperature and pressure, and the 
study of the thermometer and barometer. 

(2) What is the prevailing direction of the wind in 
Columbia ? This leads to charting weather reports. 

(3) Why does it blow in these directions? This 
introduces cyclones, highs and lows, and their 
size, area, track, etc. This shows that the wind is 
chiefly from the southwest, and south and west, 
because the track of the cyclones is north of 
Columbia, and moves from west to east. 

(4) Where else can we find the directions of wind 
determined by temperature and pressure? This 
leads to the study of planetary winds. 

(5) Why do these winds blow in these directions? 
This introduces the earth as a planet. 



PSYCHOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION 219 

B. (1) From which directions do the rains usually come 
in Columbia? This to be determined by charts. 

(2) Why? This leads to a study of the cause of rain, 
and the source of moisture. 

(3) What is the cause of other weather phenomena, 
such as snow, hail, frost, etc.? 

It may be stated that when worked out in detail these 
problems embrace about three-fourths of the text, though 
the order of topics in the text was not followed. Each 
problem has those topics in the text which bear upon it 
assigned for reading in connection with it. Then, after this 
amount* of the text has been covered in this desultory way, 
the class may be turned to the first chapter, to go through 
all the chapters, one after the other, for the logical arrange- 
ment. 

The advantages of this plan are, first, that a stronger 
motive is engendered, since both the love of geography and 
the interest in practical home problems are appealed to. 
Second, when the pupils take up the text in a logical way 
they go over relatively familiar material with a rich, recent 
content gained by the earlier survey. This method is of 
value in the introduction to many of the new subjects of 
the high school, such as physics, chemistry, biology, etc. 

The principle of the psychological organization may be 
illustrated in another way, by means of the facts of the 
growth of subject-matter. 

Section 4. Growth of Subject-Matter 

From the time of Rousseau to the present there has been 
a constant use in pedagogy of the term "development and 
growth of the individual." Froebel and the Herbartians 
used it, and every teacher who has read even a minimum of 
pedagogical literature is acquainted with the idea. 

The idea of growth has not, however, been applied with 



220 METHODS OF TEACHING 

sufficient emphasis to the different kinds of subject-matter 
within experience. We speak of the development of the 
individual, but we do not think as often as we should 
about the development of each of the subjects within the 
individual. If such application is made of the term to 
branches of subject-matter, an interesting and valuable 
standpoint is obtained. 

The Capital of the Child. — In the first place, just as 
the individual enters the business world with a certain capi- 
tal, so he begins the study of any subject with a certain 
capital of that particular sort. For example, when he begins 
the study of formal history he has already within his expe- 
rience a considerable mass of historical subject-matter. If 
a teacher could take the pains to discover the actual work- 
ing capital that a pupil possesses, the mass would be found 
to be rather large. Or, again, we may instance the subject 
of formal grammar, if it is studied in the higher grades. 
The pupil probably has everything to start with except the 
terminology, although this capital is in a very inchoate, 
incorrect, and indefinite condition. Or, take the study of 
physics in the high school. The student starts with many 
notions concerning the relation of force to things that he 
sees about him. These notions are inexact and indefinite, 
both in meaning and in terminology. But the point is that 
he has them, and, moreover, that they are his capital, and 
that in the face of new situations he has nothing but them 
with which to work. 

Subject-Matter Not Hypodermically Injected. — That is 
to say, and this is the second point, the teacher cannot 
hypodermically inject new subject-matter into the pupil. 
The child is at the mercy of what he already knows. He 
can move forward only in so far as problems of develop- 
ment emerge within this capital that he has. If they do 



PSYCHOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION 221 

not arise within this subject-matter, the thing which the 
teacher thinks he is teaching slides off the child's expe- 
rience like water off the proverbial duck's back. Each 
branch of subject-matter grows just as the individual grows, 
by the development of what he already has. This does not 
preclude the "introduction" of new material. It simply lays 
stress upon the fact that the idea introduced gets meaning 
for the child from whatever reorganizations of experience 
he makes in order to get control of it. The first time he 
sees a mountain it means to him no more than he can gain 
by reorganization of what he already has. In this sense 
we rather get him to reorganize his experience so that it 
will approximate to the racial organizations than put into 
him new subject-matter as we add potatoes to a bin. 

Child Subject-Matter the Focal Point. — In the third 
place, the important factor for the teacher, the one which 
he should keep in mind, is not the logically arranged text- 
book, but the subject-matter within the experience of the 
pupil. It is almost an obsession with us who teach, to have 
the subject-matter we are about to present always in the 
focus of attention, rather than the subject-matter which 
the pupil already has. Yet if the subject-matter within the 
pupil grows only by means of problems arising one after 
another, it is very evident that the condition in which it is 
situated in his mind and organized within, it may be very 
different from that which we have so nicely organized within 
our own minds. It is unfortunate that we cannot get as 
clear an image of what his problems are as we have of our 
own, and one deficiency of ours is that the problem of 
imaging the state of the subject-matter within him is not 
so seriously attacked by us as it should be. To be sure, the 
knowledge of his mental content cannot be attained to any 
complete degree ; the value to be gained from attacking this 



222 METHODS OF TEACHING 

problem is essentially that of securing the right attitude 
rather than that of securing any definite picture. 

Historical Growth of Subject-Matter. — To emphasize 
the fact that subject-matter grows in the individual, we can 
point to the historical organization of subject-matter. We 
have on record the different types of problems and organi- 
zations of subject-matter in the various branches. A study 
of the history of mathematics shows us that the organi- 
zations of the problems which the race has had at different 
times are very decidedly different in form from our own, 
but that out of these, by gradual growth, has developed 
the modern subject-matter. And while it cannot be main- 
tained that the child duplicates the race in the consecutive 
order of his problems and his resultant organization of 
subject-matter, a study of the history of different branches 
of knowledge will illustrate by analogy the fact that the 
immature child differs very materially and widely from the 
mature and well-trained teacher, just as the old type of 
problems and their solutions differ from those of modern 
times. If we could remember that the subject-matter within 
each individual developed genetically from very crude and 
simple subject-matter by means of problems which arise 
within experience, as well as we remember that subject- 
matter developed historically within the race from very 
crude beginnings by means of problems which arose within 
racial experience, we would see more clearly the necessity 
for intellectual sympathy with children. For example, the 
beginnings of history in little children arise from what hap- 
pened yesterday, last week, grows to include facts about 
father, grandfather, George Washington, Cinderella, Old 
Mother Hubbard, Abraham Lincoln — a jumble of past 
events which cannot by any means be organized from a 
historical point of view as they then stand. 



PSYCHOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION 223 

Exercises 

1. Observe a good teacher teach a lesson, after securing 
from him a logical organization of the subject-matter he 
expects to teach. Note how he varies from this in taking, it 
up with the class. Have him explain the variations you 
noticed. 

2. Were the summaries sufficient in number and well 
placed? 

3. What were the points of difficulty for pupils ? 

4. How were they handled? 

5. What motives were present? 

6. What advantages were there in not following the 
s} r stematic outline? 

7. How do you think the lesson could have been 
improved ? 

8. If you have taught, or are teaching, give an illus- 
tration of your own of the first question above. 

9. Work out for class a series of questions that will 
test the pupils' knowledge of a subject to be studied during 
the next year. Have these criticised in class, and from all 
the members make a composite list. Then make arrange- 
ments to have this list given to the pupils for whom it was 
made. Tabulate the results. 

10. What are the striking points that the test brings out? 

11. Is it true that a pupil knows a great deal about a 
subject before he begins to study it? 



CHAPTER XIV 

INCIDENTAL AND SYSTEMATIC TREATMENT OF SUBJECT- 
MATTER 

Section i. Logically Organized Subject-Matter 

The Common Plan. — The distinctions made in the last 
chapter have an unusually interesting application in the 
organization of the course of study, particularly in the 
elementary school. 

For centuries the subjects of the course of study have 
been taught in isolation each from the other. Arithmetic 
is taught in one period, history in another, writing in a 
third, and so forth. Moreover, each subject has been ar- 
ranged logically, as can be seen in any of the older school 
text-books. Grammar began with a definition of the subject, 
and a catalogue of its divisions, and then step by step the 
whole science was unfolded. 

These two characteristics — logical arrangement and isola- 
tion — were the common characteristics of the treatment of 
all subjects up to a few years ago. 

Weakness. — However, as pointed out by Herbart one 
hundred years ago, and particularly by Dewey in our own 
day, isolation of subjects is not natural. Children do not 
outside school have such strong lines of demarcation in 
what thev do as is required by school practice. No child 
outside of school says this is arithmetic, that geography. 
He goes ahead with what he is doing and passes uncon- 
sciously from one subject to another. 

It was pointed out by others that the presentation of 

224 



TREATMENT OF SUBJECT-MATTER 225 

subject-matter in logical order was not conducive to the 
greatest interest. Pestalozzi had made an improvement 
over earlier texts by insisting that there should, of course, 
be a logical sequence but that the steps should be^ easy. 
Pestalozzi, however, started from the wrong point of view. 
He should, instead of beginning with the simplest elements 
and proceeding by easy steps, have paid more attention to 
what children are interested in. Usually, for instance, it is 
easier and pleasanter for the pupil to begin with geography 
of the home vicinity than with the elements of geography. 
It is better in language to have him commence with a per- 
sonal letter than with the rules of composition. In learning 
to write, they say, a child will do better by beginning with 
words than with the curves and lines that, when joined, 
give letters and, later, words. 

Section 2. Psychologized Subject-Matter 

Psychologized Subject-Matter. — The present genera- 
tion of educators believe that there is much truth in these 
criticisms, and several attempts have been made to avoid 
isolation of subjects, and to make each subject correspond 
more nearly to the natural order or sequence of topics. 

Perhaps no better illustration of the psychologizing of 
subject-matter in texts can be found than in the recent 
language and arithmetic texts. I select at random a lan- 
guage book and find the following to be the order of the 
language facts presented : 

1. Definition of a sentence. 

2. Capital at beginning of sentence. 

3. Period at end of sentence. 

4. Name of person begins with capital. 

5. Use of "went" and "gone." 

6. The paragraph. 

7. Use of "a" and "an." 



22 6 METHOD OF TEACHING 

8. Use of capitals in a title. 

9. Use of "run" and "ran." 

10. Exclamations. 

11. Capitals in names of places. 

12. Use of "no," "not," "never" and "have." 

13. Abbreviations. 

14. Use of comma, etc. 

Here it is observed that from a logical point of view the 
order is decidedly illogical. The author of the text claims 
that while it is not logical it takes up items that are of 
use in the written or spoken language of the pupils and pre- 
sents them about in the order in which a need can be aroused 
for them. This is what is meant by psychologizing subject- 
matter. 

The objection is raised that text-books can make only an 
imperfect attempt at this process because they do not fit the 
peculiar conditions of each class. It is claimed that they do 
not go the whole length and that the teacher who teaches 
the classes should determine the order of the topics, taking 
them up when needed. A complete psychologizing of a 
subject can be done only by a teacher with his own class. 
It would be better, say these critics, to have the subject- 
matter in language, for instance, arranged logically, with 
appropriate drill exercises for each topic, and let the teacher 
dip into it at any point where the errors each class make 
in their oral or written speech, demands. This is an excel- 
lent plan wherever well-trained teachers can be found. 
Where the teachers are poorly trained, a favorable outcome 
is not so certain. 

Section 3. Correlation and Concentration 

Correlation. — In the foregoing paragraphs we have 
been speaking of the psychological versus logical presenta- 
tion of any subject. The other weakness of the commonly 



TREATMENT OF SUBJECT-MATTER 227 

accepted division of subjects — isolation — has given rise to 
the doctrine of correlation. This goes back to Herbart and 
is amplified by his disciples. McMurry says, 1 "By corre- 
lation is meant such a connection between the parts of each 
study and such a spinning of relations and connecting links 
between different sciences that unity may spring out of the 
variety of knowledge. History, for example, is a series 
and collocation of facts explainable on the basis of cause 
and effect, a development. On the other hand, history is 
intimately related to geography, language, natural science, 
literature, and mathematics. It would be impossible to draw 
real history out by the roots without drawing all other 
studies out bodily with it." 

Correlation attempts to relate the information in one sub- 
ject with other subjects, different parts of the same subject 
with each other, and all subjects with the life of the pupil. 
Geography should be used in history. Attention should be 
paid to language in every other subject. Arithmetic should 
be used wherever needed. History should be used in litera- 
ture. Facts found in Grecian history should be correlated 
at appropriate times with Roman history. The geography 
of Europe should be used in geography lessons on North 
America. Each day's lesson should be related with what 
has gone before. 

Moreover, all school subjects should be related to the 
life of the child. Arithmetic should draw its applications 
from business life. The pupil should be able to draw up 
notes, receipts and bills. History should explain modern 
life and not be a mere study of ancient problems. Physiol- 
ogy should be related to sanitation and practical habits of 
hygiene. Civics should be studied in connection with the 
government of the home community. 

1 Elements of General Method, p. 162. 



228 METHODS OF TEACHING 

This is sound pedagogical doctrine. The school tends to 
make each subject an end in itself. But each subject is 
instrumental. It has been evolved by the race to control 
values, and children's values are largely practical. 

Concentration. — In the search for motive and for a 
remedy for isolation, certain reformers have gone further, 
saying that there are two classes of correlated subjects — 
central and subordinate. They all agree pretty well that 
writing, spelling, reading, arithmetic, and language are sub- 
ordinate subjects. The doctrine of concentration postulates 
that if certain subjects are made the central subjects; i. e., 
subjects which are studied continuously and more or less 
systematically, the subordinate subjects can be learned inci- 
dentally. It is not necessary to have a specific period for 
teaching writing or spelling every day. These can be better 
learned by having the children write upon the central sub- 
jects and study enough writing and spelling to do this 
properly. When pupils are found to write illegibly, then 
give some writing lessons. Gather up their errors in 
spelling and have a spelling lesson every once in a while. 

It is claimed, and justly so, that two advantages will result. 
First, the pupils will have a stronger motive for learning 
material incidental to the work of the central subject, 
material for which they feel the need. Second, because 
they see its use they will understand it better. It will be 
concrete. When a boy is making a sled and has to measure 
his lumber he will get a stronger hold upon board measure 
and cost of lumber than if this were a hypothetical problem 
in an arithmetic class. 

It is claimed by the opponents of concentration that the 
pupils will be better able to utilize the subject-matter of 
arithmetic, spelling or writing in the central subjects if 
they have first studied it systematically in separate classes. 



TREATMENT OF SUBJECT-MATTER 229 

This, of course, is true, but does not meet the question of 
motive. For if the subjects are each studied systematically 
and in isolation, how will the motive for each have been 
secured in the beginning ? Presumably by immediate interest 
in the subject. But it is hard to get immediate interest in 
formal subjects such as writing or spelling, while it is 
relatively easy to secure interest in history or industrial 
work. 

Section 4. Central Subjects 

Central Subjects. — The selection of central subjects is 
dependent upon their immediate interest and their impor- 
tance for pupils of the age at which they are studied. For 
if these central subjects do not possess value, no intrinsic 
need can be created for the instrumental subjects which are 
studied incidentally. The children will not care to learn 
arithmetic, spelling or writing if they have no interest in 
the subject-matter which requires the use of these. At the 
same time these central subjects must be studied, because 
they are of great use to the pupils at that time. Many 
trivial subjects possess interest, but they have to be excluded 
because they are not as important as something else. 

Generally speaking, no one subject can be made the "core" 
because no one subject exercises the whole of life and no 
one can use all the incidental subjects. Literature is impor- 
tant and interesting, but it would not use much arithmetic 
or geography. Geography is important, but it will not use 
much literature or history. Consequently it is necessary to 
have more than one central subject in the whole course. 
These may be apportioned to different grades or run side 
by side through all the grades. 

Which are the central subjects? To this several answers 
have been given by various people. These plans will be 



230 METHODS OF TEACHING 

treated briefly and references will be given at the end of 
the chapter. 

Parker's Plan. — F. W. Parker says, 1 "The subject-matter 
found in the child's environment, to be used in its develop- 
ment, is classified under the head of central subjects: (a) 
Geography, geology, and mineralogy — the sciences of in- 
organic matter. (b) Physics and chemistry — the laws of 
movement and change of inorganic matter, (c) Botany, 
zoology, anthropology, ethnology, and history — sciences of 
organic matter and life, (d) Physiology — the physics and 
chemistry of living organisms." 

He adds : "A child comes in contact with all these sub- 
jects in its environment, and begins instinctively its investi- 
gations in each and every one of the directions indicated by 
the central subjects. The doctrine of concentration pro- 
poses that these subjects be continued as a child has begun 
them, until there arrives that period of mental develop- 
ment when a specialization of subjects can most econom- 
ically grow out of the rich subsoil of the related knowl- 
edge of all subjects. The direct study of the central sub- 
jects, by observation, investigation, imagination, and orig- 
inal inference, furnishes an inexhaustible means of educa- 
tive mental action." 

It is to be borne in mind, of course, that these subjects 
are not to be studied in the grades with such attention to 
technical detail as the names of the subjects and acquaint- 
ance with them in college and high school would imply. 
Disciples of Parker have worked some of this out in detail 
as can be found in the early numbers of the journal now 
called the Elementary School Teacher. 

Mrs. Alling-Aber's Plan. — Mrs. Alling-Aber describes 
an experiment carried on by her in Boston and repeated by 

1 Talks on Pedagogics, p. 377. 



TREATMENT OF SUBJECT-MATTER 231 

others in Chicago and states the aim 1 of the experiment 
as follows : "The aim of the experiment was to see if 
the child may not be introduced at once to the foundations 
of all learning — the natural and physical sciences, mathe- 
matics, literature (including language), and history — and at 
the same time be given a mastery of such elements of 
reading, writing, and number as usually constitute primary 
education." 

This plan is obscure in this sense, that while mathematics 
is given as a central subject, arithmetic is studied inciden- 
tally as is shown later in her text (p. 171). This author 
adds literature to the list of central subjects quoted just 
above. 

Dewey's Plan. — In The School and Society Professor 
Dewey gives a list of impulses and interests which may be 
counted upon in the grades. 2 These are the interest "in 
conversation or communication ; in inquiry, or finding out 
things ; in making things, or construction ; and in artistic 
expression." 

These are the impulses and interests. The material 
upon which they will work — the central subjects are fluent, 
but in so far as they were worked out in the Elementary 
School, chief emphasis was laid upon occupations as "the 
articulating centers of school life." 3 

Miss Dopp's Plan. — Miss Dopp has elaborated upon the 
plan just presented 4 for making occupations the center as 
follows : 

1. In later infancy {2]/ 2 to 7 or 8 years) the child be- 
gins to exploit his environment. He will do this through 

1 An Experiment in Education, p. 3. 

2 P- 57- 

3 Op. cit, p. 24. 

4 The Place of Industries in Education. 



232 METHODS OF TEACHING 

games, dramatic plays, simple agricultural life before the 
introduction of machinery, contact with animals and plants, 
crude and simple construction work. 

2. In the period of transition (eighth year) hunting 
activities, the earliest forms of trade, primitive travel and 
transportation by water, and the making of primitive tools 
and weapons may be made the center. 

3. Childhood (8 to 10 years) is ''pre-eminently a motor 
period." Such problems may be taken up as "how man 
secured dominion over the natural forces, substituting for 
the motive power of his own muscles that of the beast,- 
the water, the wind, fire, steam, and electricity; and how, 
in applying these forces to the work of society, he invented 
tools, discovered mechanical principles, worked out metrical 
apparatus, exploited his environment in search of natural 
forces, and invented and controlled machines for the more 
advantageous application of these forces." (p. 158-9.) 

Harriet M. Scott's Plan.— Miss Scott 1 has modified the 
Culture Epoch theory in applying it to American condi- 
tions and indicates, in a general way, the dominant interest 
for each grade, and the material which furnishes nutriment 
for the child at each stage of his development. These fea- 
tures may be exhibited in outline as follows : 

DOMINANT INTEREST MATERIAL 

To use senses (curiosity). Nomadic period of history — 

Indian as type. 

For possessions. Pastoral and agricultural 

period — early Aryan as 
type. 

For attention or notice. Persian. 

To imitate (suggestibility). Greek. 

1 Organic Education, pp. 28-30. 



TREATMENT OF SUBJECT-MATTER 



233 



DOMINANT INTEREST 

To co-operate for the sake 

of gain. 
For personal freedom. 
To serve (display power). 
For adventure, experiment. 

For what is true (incipient). 

For activity, movement, af- 
fairs. 
For the practical. 

For what is personally prac- 
tical. 
For authoritative knowledge. 



For explanation — how things 
came to be, or how they 
are done. 



MATERIAL 



Roman. 



For approval (extremes 
shown in diffidence and 
egotism). 



Early German. 

Feudalism and chivalry. 

Renaissance — Columbus as 
type. 

Puritan as type of reforma- 
tion. 

Story of America. 

United States in its organic 
relations. 

Europe and its relations to 
the United States. 

Asia (past, present, future) 
in relation to the United 
States. 

Africa, as showing nations 
crystallized ( inter- 
preted through their 
works), and as showing 
nations in the making. Its 
meaning, to the United 
States. 

The earth's history as a 
planet, its present physical 
conditions, and the evolu- 
tion of industrial life. 
(Each individual, though 
but a small part, is seen to 
be organically related to 
the whole.) 



234 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



DOMINANT INTEREST 

For admiration and power. 



For a larger self-interest in 
community and national 
life. 



For the ideal. 



MATERIAL 

Brief view of the history of 
the rise and decline of the 
great civilizations of the 
world (with causes), and 
special study of social life. 

Growth of the State as a 
larger self, as shown in 
United States history, and 
of the individual as a 
larger self, as shown in. 
literature. 

Ideals of institutional life 
(particularly of the 
home), as shown through 
history, nature study, lit- 
erature, and art. 



She adds: 1 "The purpose of these headings may be 
briefly indicated, first on the negative side. They are not 
designed to be blindly followed by the teacher in her 
presentation of the period to the children. Their purpose 
is largely that of convenience, enabling the teacher to trace 
for herself the various lines of progress from age to age, 
and thus to gain a more distinct and orderly conception 
of each period in its specific relations to every other. The 
divisions may also serve to assure the teacher that she 
has omitted no essential points in either preparation or 
presentation, and to test the knowledge of the children in 
reviewing a given period. But it must not be supposed 
that, in the study of the Roman period, for instance, the 
teacher shall conscientiously complete the topic of, say, social 



1 Op. cit., p. 62. 



TREATMENT OF SUBJECT-MATTER 235 

life, before she allows herself to touch upon that of the 
church. In any of the earlier civilizations, especially, the 
different strands of life are so intertwined that to attempt 
to keep them rigidly apart is to do violence to the spirit 
of the age itself. In general, the order of topics set down 
may be followed, and whether followed or not it should 
always be clearly defined in the mind of the teacher; but 
only to clarify, not to dominate, the manner of pre- 
sentation." 

Meriam's Plan. — J. L. Meriam in a publication soon 
to be issued organizes the elementary school as follows : 

In the first three grades four activities form the basis, 
these being the playing of games, handwork, observation, 
stories. In the fourth grade local industries form the cen- 
ter. These industries vary with the locality but include 
such common ones as the grocery store, the blacksmith 
shop, the shoe shop and the postoffice. In the fifth and 
sixth grades industries at large are the subjects of study: 
such industries as fishing, hunting, lumbering, mining, 
transportation, manufacturing, governmental activities, etc. 
In the seventh and eighth grades, in order to secure bet- 
ter interpretation and richer appreciation of these activi- 
ties, their growth and evolution from simpler and cruder 
forms that have been or are now in use are studied. 

Throughout all the grades the fourth activity of the pri- 
mary grades — stories — is used, in the grades above the 
third it develops into the study of pictures, literature, and 
music. Likewise through all the grades from first to last 
attention is given to physical education largely through 
folk dances. 

Stone's Plan. — C. W. Stone in his Training School 
Course of Study, finds "three interests, viz., play, seasonal 
changes, and special days, are available for use in each 



236 METHODS OF TEACHING 

grade." "Beside the above mentioned interests that are 
utilized in all the grades, certain interests have been se- 
lected for special use in each individual grade. For the 
respective grades these are : 

Grade I. Home Life. 

Grade II. Community Occupations. 

Grade III. Community Industries. 

Grade IV. Helps from Other Lands. Transportation and 

Life in Other Lands. 
Grade V. Westward Expansion. The New World. 
Grade VI. Colonization and Our Heritage from Great 

Nations and Individuals. 
Grade VII. The Growth of Our Nation. 

The Growth of Our State. 

Section 5. Incidental Subjects 

To illustrate the manner in which the subjects may be in- 
troduced incidentally I shall quote freely from an unpub- 
lished experiment made by Ernest Horn in the University 
Elementary School, Columbia, Missouri, in 1908-9. The 
investigation was carried on in the seventh grade, and United 
States history was made the center. This means in terms 
of time periods, that history was studied all the day and 
every day in the year. And in studying history the pupils 
had to use writing, spelling, arithmetic, etc. There was no 
set period for these subjects. When it was necessary to 
study some arithmetic they stopped and studied it, sometimes 
for a few minutes, sometimes for a half day, depending 
upon the extent of the problem. 

All of the reading of the year was based upon the history 
of the United States. With a few exceptions, such as for- 
eign orations and Dickens' American Xotcs, all the selections 
read were from American authors. These selections were 



TREATMENT OF SUBJECT-MATTER 237 

made for two purposes : First, for the descriptive matter 
they contained relative to the topic in hand, and second, 
for their worth as examples of the culture of the period 
in which they were produced. Oftentimes, as in the case of 
Franklin's Autobiography and Whittier's Snowbound, these 
two purposes became one. 

Reading. — The method in reading orally was as fol- 
lows : When information primarily was sought, either one 
member of the class prepared the reading and read to all 
the class, or the class read at sight, reading the paragraph 
or a page in turn. As the purpose stated above was to im- 
part information, the attention in such reading was given 
to interpreting the printed page so clearly that the rest of 
the class could understand it. In case a pupil fell short of 
this criterion, the stanza or paragraph was reread by another 
member of the class. The reproof implied in this repetition 
was sufficient to insure better efforts next time. Occa- 
sionally the repetition was required of the pupil who failed 
to make himself understood the first time. 

Literature. — Twenty-nine selections were read. They 
were selected for literary value and because they illustrated 
some event or period. Among the selections read were 
Aldrich's Unguarded Gates, Franklin's Autobiography, Lin- 
coln's Gettysburg Speech, Lowell's The Courting, Wood- 
worth's The Old Oaken Bucket, etc. In addition to this 
poetry, prose selections such as Leather Stocking Tales, The 
Legend of Sleepy Hollow, Dickens' American Notes, etc., 
were read. 

Writing. — A great deal of written work was required 
in the course of the year's work (1) in the way of reports 
on special investigations, and (2) in making summaries or 
expositions of such solutions of the problems as had been 
found by the class. No work was accepted which was not 



238 METHODS OF TEACHING 

done with care. The criterion was neatness and legibility. 
When a composition did not meet these requirements, the 
faults were pointed out and, after the necessary instruc- 
tion as to how to correct the difficulties, the paper was 
rewritten. 

Spelling. — In all written work the number of words 
misspelled on each page was marked at the top of that page. 
The words were not indicated but left to be sought out by 
the child. This was to give care in looking over work pre- 
vious to handing it in. These words, when searched out, 
sometimes with the aid of a fellow-student, were written 
upon the back of the composition and handed to the teacher. 
A duplicate list was handed to the class secretary, who was 
elected every week, and he copied them in a notebook. After 
every misspelled word was written the initials of the pupil 
who had missed it. At the end of each week a spelling 
lesson was given upon the words missed. Words spelled 
incorrectly in this exercise were carried over until the next 
week. The system was thus self-corrective. At the end of 
the year the notebook in which the records were kept con- 
tained 639 different words, some of which had been mis- 
spelled very frequently. This does not represent the num- 
ber, out of the total vocabulary used, that the children were 
unable to spell. Each child was taught to consult the dic- 
tionary for any word concerning the spelling of which he 
was in doubt. Many words, of course, which would other- 
wise have been misspelled, were for this reason spelled cor- 
rectly. At the same time this list contains many simple 
words which were misspelled through a slip of the pen. 

Grammar. — Attention to grammar arose from two 
sources : ( 1 ) in the interpretation of selections which were 
being read, and (2) in the correction of errors in written 
and oral composition. In the former case attention was di- 



TREATMENT OF SUBJECT-MATTER 239 

rected to grammatical structure (1) when the meaning was 
not clear, or (2) when a closer analysis was helpful to a 
fuller appreciation of the selection. 

Composition and Language. — There was no fixed order 
in which the forms of discourse or qualities of style were 
taught. Each paper depended for its form and content upon 
the problem being studied at the time. Its treatment might 
require any one or all of the forms of discourse. If the 
paper were not intelligible, nor interesting, that fact was 
noted by the class if read to them, or by the teacher if read 
by him. In reading papers the teacher indicated faults in 
the margin of the page on which they occurred, and dis- 
cussed with the individual pupil the mistakes made by him. 
Whatever hindered the interest or clearness of a composition 
was corrected. Such corrections varied from punctuation 
to style. Where faults, as, for example, the lack of unity, 
were common to several pupils, time was taken in class for 
a correction of these faults. Considerable time was spent 
in discussing plans for composition, and there was grad- 
ually developed by the class the habit of carefully outlining 
a paper before writing it. Aside from such discussions as 
described above, no time was given for instruction in any- 
thing like rhetoric. 

Arithmetic and Algebra. — In a solution of the problems 
which constituted the course of study much arithmetical 
work naturally arose. All work in arithmetic was done 
only to aid in the solution of some problem concerning the 
development of the United States. There were no drill 
problems except in cases where the pupil was unable to 
carry on the processes required. Usually such drill was 
needed by only part of the class. In such cases the other 
members of the class were free to continue their computa- 
tions. Care was taken to see that the methods used were 



2 4 METHODS OF TEACHING 

of the most economic kind. With the above exceptions 
every problem dealt with concrete material. Because of 
the estimates of large areas, populations, and wealth, many 
of the numbers used were very large. Care was taken to 
approach a relative understanding of such numbers by 
using graphic illustrations and comparisons in percentage. 

Classified under the headings given in the ordinary text- 
books in arithmetic, a great variety of processes were used. 
It must be kept in mind that this list comprises only such 
computations as were found necessary to the solution of the 
problems arising in the history outlined in Chapter IV. No 
attempt was made to force a correlation in order to insure 
proficiency in any arithmetical process. The list of processes 
used follows: 

(i) Addition, multiplication, subtraction, division. (2) 
Common fractions with very small denominators such as 
one-half, one-third, one-fourth, etc. (Fractions which ne- 
cessitated the use of large denominators were always ex- 
pressed in decimal form.) (3) Decimals, percentage, inter- 
est. (Study of the national bank, economics of slavery, etc.) 
(4) Taxes, a. Tariff (Jackson's administration) ; b. Direct 
(Revolutionary war, and Civil war) ; c. Income tax (Civil 
war) ; d. Internal revenue (Spanish- American war, Civil 
war). (5) Money, Foreign exchange, a. English (Esti- 
mates of Colonial industries) ; b. French (Louisiana Pur- 
chase). (6) Ratio, Comparisons. (7) Square measure 
(Public land policy, Railroad grants). (8) Cubical meas- 
ure (Estimation of a ton as a measure of shipping capacity). 
(9) Linear measure. (10) Metric system. (11) Profit and 
loss (Protective tariff). (12) Square root (In getting more 
perfect ideas of areas by comparing them as to lengths and 
breadths). (13) Longitude and time (Knowledge of the 
world in 1492, Magellan's trip around the world). 



TREATMENT OF SUBJECT-MATTER 241 

These topics did not receive an equal amount of atten- 
tion. Some did not occur frequently enough to give exercise 
in their processes equal to that given in the ordinary course 
of study. This is true of interest, cubical measure, square 
root, cube root, metric system, and common fractions with 
large denominator. On the other hand, the four funda- 
mental processes, decimals, fractions, and percentage, were 
much more used than in the ordinary course of study. In 
the processes frequently used, an unusual degree of speed 
and accuracy was developed. 

Geography. — A serious attempt was made to keep the 
geographic background of American History constantly in 
the minds of the pupils by frequent question (1) as to the 
location of places being discussed, and (2) as to the influ- 
ence of physiography upon social, economic, and political 
conditions. A great deal of map-drawing was done to make 
these ideas, especially those of location, more exact. 

Civics. — In the study of these problems practically all 
of the material given in the ordinary text-book in civics was 
used. Since, however, this knowledge was acquired in con- 
nection with governmental problems as they have arisen in 
the history of this country, a much better idea of the actual 
workings and purposes of the government was obtained than 
could have been obtained from the study of an elementary 
text-book in civics alone. Much care was taken to create 
by the study of admirable characters on the one hand, and of 
abhorrent ones on the other, a high standard of civic ideals. 

Nature Study, Science, and Physiology. — Whenever a 
scientific principle or fact was needed in the solution of any 
problem, such a fact or principle was studied. Many ex- 
periments could not be performed on account of lack of 
laboratory facilities. While frequent reference was made 
to such scientific topics as are classified as science, only such 



242 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



topics can be given as received considerable study and labo- 
ratory methods. Such topics were as follows : 

i. Compass. The north star. A chart of the great 
clipper and the north star was made from observation by 
the children at home. 

2. Study of the principles of the water-wheel and the 
water turbine. 

3. Study of the principle of the steam engine. An ex- 
amination was made of a model of the steam engine in 
the engineering laboratory, University of Missouri. Tele- 
phone, telegraph. 

4. Study of soils, reasons for cultivation, irrigation, fer- 
tilization. 

5. Improvement of agriculture through scientific knowl- 
edge, illustrations from plant and animal breeding. The 
museum of the horticultural building furnished subject- 
matter for the study of plant breeding. The farm of the 
agricultural department furnished material for the study of 
animal breeding. 

6. Farming implements and conveniences. Their im- 
provement. Material for this study was obtained from the 
agricultural museum, University of Missouri. 

7. Light. Reflection. Effect of sunlight as a sanitary 
agent. 

8. Heat. Conduction. Radiation. Absorption. Mod- 
ern fuels. The thermometer. 

The study of physiology consisted almost entirely of the 
study of matters of hygiene. Such study arose from two 
sources: (1) in connection with the problems being dis- 
cussed, and (2) in connection with the incidents of the 
schoolroom. 

Physical Training. — Physical training was entirely sep- 
arate from the studv of United States historv. 



TREATMENT OF SUBJECT-MATTER 243 

Drawing. — Drawings were made of such objects as 
could be obtained which had connection with problems out- 
lined. 

Systematization. — After considering Horn's experi- 
ment carefully, the question arises, Should certain of the 
subjects other than history have been studied systematically? 
Should not grammar be so studied? Or arithmetic? 

The argument in favor is that if they are understood, 
they are remembered better, and if taken up systematically 
they are better understood. There seems undoubtedly to be 
a place for the incidental study of subjects and a very large 
place. The only question is, Should this study in the case 
of certain subjects be purely incidental? 

A later systematization is of use for the sake of interest, 
understanding, and memory. There naturally is such a de- 
sire in the case of every one. But these systematic studies 
should come late. In the absence of statistics, opinions are 
allowable and by virtue of this liberty, I venture to state 
that if grammar is not studied systematically till the eighth 
grade, and arithmetic till the fourth grade, the pupils will 
know more about the subjects and will be able to use them 
better than if both are studied from the first grade up. 

In deciding where the subjects should differentiate in the 
grades, we have no scientific data. It is all a matter of indi- 
vidual opinion. To obviate this, a careful study of the 
instincts and tendencies of school children at different ages 
should be made after a comprehensive plan. 

The settled fact from all these experiments is this : Much 
correlation and incidental study of subjects can be carried 
on to great advantage. It is more difficult than to use the 
text-book straight, but it adds joyousness and interest to the 
teacher's work and keeps her young, because she is not 
getting into a rut. 



244 METHODS OF TEACHING 

References for Class Reading 

Alling-Aber, An Experiment in Education, pp. 3-24. 

Dewey, The Scliool and Society, pp. 46-65. 

Dopp, The Place of Industries in Education, pp. 104-172. 

McMurry, Elements of General Method, pp. 162-179. 

Parker, Talks on Pedagogics, pp. 25-46. 

Scott, Organic Education, pp. 18-30 and 68 ff. 

Exercises 

1. Give several examples of the inability of pupils to 
apply to life facts learned in a subject in school. 

2. How serious is the feeling that business men and 
other adults have on this subject? 

3. How can this weakness be overcome? 

4. Take a common text in arithmetic and note the 
order of the topics as is done in this chapter in the case 
of language. Do you think this is better or worse than a 
good logical treatment? 

5. Give numerous instances of correlation between les- 
sons in the same subject, between subjects, between subjects 
and the life of the pupils. 

6. Make arithmetic a theoretical center and show what 
other subjects can be used incidentally. Do this for geog- 
raphy. 

7. Which in your opinion is the best group of subjects 
as given by the different writers quoted? Give reasons. 

8. To what extent could concentration be worked out 
in the high school? Give a theoretical plan, waiving the 
question of the wisdom of concentration. 

9. In the preceding chapter an illustration was given in 
Section 3 from physical geography. Select a late text in 
a foreign language and show that that plan is followed. 
Does the method in the cases of the book examined increase 



TREATMENT OF SUBJECT-MATTER 245 

motive? Why, or why not, as the case may be ? If not, how 
could you remedy the difficulty? 

10. Is it necessary to have spelling lessons daily? In 
connection with this read Thorndike, Principles of Teaching, 
pp. 268-273, and state how it bears on the subject. 

11. Illustrate in detail how children might learn arith- 
metic incidentally in the primary grades while having no 
systematic study of it. 

12. Study a five-year-old boy and a five-year-old girl and 
determine how much arithmetic they have picked up inci- 
dentally before going to school? Is the amount larger or 
smaller than you thought? 



CHAPTER XV 

EXAMPLES OF METHODS OF SECURING MOTIVES 

In this chapter we shall give typical illustrations of the 
securing of motive through problems and needs in both the 
systematic and incidental study of subjects. 

For the sake of ready reference the method may be re- 
stated as follows : In order to raise a problem or arouse 
a need, it is necessary first that there be some value in the 
pupil's experience in whose control he is interested, second 
he must realize that he does not have adequate control of 
this, and then he will have a motive for studying new sub- 
ject-matter. In this, it is necessary to distinguish between 
needs that arise from generic values (Chapter X) and those 
that arise from specific values (Chapter X). This is neces- 
sary because subject-matter is best learned when it is studied 
for its specific intrinsic function. 

Section i. Composition 

If we take the subject of composition and apply this 
method we find that the value which it is created to control 
is the communication of values — and that it works best when 
the writer has something of value, an audience that knows 
less about the value than he and is at the same time inter- 
ested in his value. The pupil is made to feel that he does 
not have control of this value; i. e., of communicating this 
value by the simple verifying process of trying his state- 
ment on his audience to see if they get his idea. If they do 
not (under the conditions of interest in his own idea) he 

246 



METHODS OF SECURING MOTIVES 247 

will be anxious to study devices that will give him the 
desired effectiveness. At this point the various "forms" or 
rules of composition will be taken up as needed. 

In this as in all cases he should be given an opportunity 
to solve the problem himself; i. e., remedy his defect. The 
teacher assists. And the methods used by good writers may 
be consulted to see how they do it. 

Following is a report of work done in description in the 
University High School by Carter Alexander. In all cases 
the pupils were allowed to select their own topics. The au- 
dience (including pupils and teacher) listened to the com- 
position read by the writers in class and decided upon the 
effectiveness of the work. In each case the teacher gave no 
preliminary lessons on a topic before it was developed in 
class. The pupils were told to write, and when their com- 
positions were read flaws were found, and rules for correct- 
ing each were developed in class. Then they would write 
again and other flaws would be found and corrected. 

Individual Subjects for Composition. — In order that 
the writer may have some value to express, of which the 
audience does not have control, the subjects of compositions 
may be chosen by the writer. If all write upon the same 
theme it follows, on the one hand, that the teacher cannot 
be sure that it is of value to the writers, and, on the othei 
hand, one incentive to writing is taken away, because every*, 
body is supposed to know as much about the topic as doe., 
the writer. Whether or not the topic be chosen by the 
writer, it must be a valuable one to him. In order to secure 
this, one rule may be laid down: let the writers choose a 
superlative experience — the funniest, the most thrilling, the 
saddest, or the most peculiar. The writer must also think 
of his audience, and select among his valuable experiences 
those which he believes will interest them. 



248 METHOD OF TEACHING 

A Genuine Audience. — In order to get an audience that 
will be below him in a knowledge of the thing he is to 
convey, the whole class should be the audience. He may 
feel that he cannot tell the teacher anything, but he is surer 
of the class. In addition to this the teacher should culti- 
vate the attitude that makes the pupils feel that they can 
give him things which he does not already know. For 
undoubtedly they are often in a position to do so in con- 
nection with some matter of peculiar interest to them. 

In such a situation it is only necessary to get the writer 
to feel that he cannot convey his meaning efficiently. In. 
getting him to realize this and thereby feel the need for 
the forms of language, the audience, including the teacher, 
assists. It can decide upon his effectiveness as readers de- 
cide upon the effectiveness of a novelist. If they make him 
aware of the fact that he has not given them something 
worth while, he will be conscious that he has not accom- 
plished his purpose. 

With the need thus aroused the teacher sets to work 
with the class to devise a scheme for getting control of 
the process of communication. In almost every case the 
teacher can, by a "common sense method," get the children 
to state how to do it. And when they have found it they 
have struck upon the form or principle of language which 
the race has already worked out. 

Report of a Series of Lessons. — The following is an 
example of how certain language forms used in descrip- 
tion were taught : These forms were the fundamental image, 
point of view, details, choice of words, figures of speech, 
character description, and impressiveness. 1 

Description. — The class had been working upon nar- 

1 Taught by Carter Alexander in Teachers' College High School, 
University of Missouri. 



METHODS OF SECURING MOTIVES 249 

ration and had found that whenever their narrative required 
descriptions the results were very unsatisfactory. So, with 
the weakness thus made evident, and their main problem — 
that of becoming efficient in writing descriptions — being 
clearly in mind, they turned to a study of description. 

The first thing the teacher did was to have the class 
describe a thing without any directions except that they 
were to choose some one of six buildings on the campus, 
with the understanding that they were to make the picture 
clear enough for the others to see the thing described. 
These themes were read in class. The students criticized 
them on the basis of clearness of pictures. The audience 
felt that they could not get a clear image of some build- 
ings, while they could of others, but that they did not 
see why this was so, except that the good themes seemed 
to follow some plan of description, and bad ones did not. 

The General Outline. — The problem then became that 
of discovering what made certain themes good. The teacher 
helped in this by exposing a picture to them several times 
in order to show them how things are really seen. At the 
first exposure they got only an idea of the general outline, 
and at each succeeding exposure they were able to add de- 
tails. In this way the students were able to formulate the 
statement that in description one should give a general idea 
to the audience first. They had thus arrived at the funda- 
mental image. Then they went to Hawthorne to see how 
he handled the fundamental image. They next were asked 
to write themes in which they paid particular attention to 
this principle. These themes were read in class. 

The Point of View. — The audience found that in 
describing a scene they had mentioned things that could not 
be seen from one standpoint; e. g., describing the outside 
and inside of a church in the same picture. Again they 



250 METHODS OF TEACHING 

went to Hawthorne to see what he did with the standpoint, 
and found that he described from one point of view, or if 
he described from more than one he made the reader aware 
of the change. Then they wrote themes emphasizing the 
point of view and fundamental image. 

Details. — During all the writing of descriptions the 
students had been worried about details, saying that they 
became confused about what to put in and what to leave 
out, and particularly in what order to place the items. This 
created a demand for a lesson on details. They discussed 
the matter themselves, and later consulted Hawthorne. 
Then other themes were written and read in class. 

When these were read the audience brought out the fact 
that while some themes had a good point of view and han- 
dled details well, the impression was still flat and unin- 
teresting. 

Effectiveness. — The teacher then called up instances 
in which the students had used effective descriptive words 
and phrases, and said that they would study two methods of 
creating effectiveness, words and comparisons. There- 
upon they went to Hawthorne again to see how he used 
these effectively. Again themes were written and read in 
class. The teacher once again set the problem, this time 
the study of comparison from a little different point of 
view ; viz., figures of speech. Again they went to Haw- 
thorne, and in addition studied some faulty figures in order 
by contrast to bring out the point that figures of speech 
should be used only when they made descriptions more ef- 
fective, and that if a figure of speech attracted attention 
to itself it did not enhance the whole description. Then 
once more they wrote themes, and again read them in class. 

Describing Persons. — Previously the students in writ- 
ins: themes had become conscious of their inability to 



METHODS OF SECURING MOTIVES 251 

describe people, as well as scenes. The teacher referred to 
this and directed attention to description of people. They 
consulted Hawthorne to see his method and wrote themes in 
which they described teachers or pupils in the school but 
not in the class. They did this in order that the audience 
might have a chance to decide upon the truthfulness of the 
description. This proved intensely interesting. 

Specific Impression. — In this lesson the audience 
observed that while some descriptions were impressive in 
parts, many of them did not have a central impression which 
they wished to convey. They then went to Hawthorne and 
to George Eliot to see if they had such, and how they 
seemed to secure it. They thereupon wrote themes in which 
they endeavored to convey specific impressions, such as the 
grandeur of Academic Hall, the disorder of a room, fear 
at night, pity, etc. 

Conclusion. — This was all the time that the students 
were able to devote to description. They returned to the 
original narratives upon which they had failed, and rewrote 
them to make them more effective. 

The teacher believes that in going over this course another 
time he would introduce the specific impression earlier, as a 
means of controlling details in the image, and as a means 
toward making the theme less flat and uninteresting. 

This series of lessons seems to be particularly valuable 
as showing a method of so handling a course that the class 
itself will feel that their work is not satisfactory, that they 
will then take hold of the problem of making it more satis- 
factory, and that they will thereby feel the force and see the 
pertinence of the principles of composition. 

Composition in the Grades. — It is possible and feasible 
to teach composition in the grades without a regular com- 
position period. In doing this the teacher may correct com- 



252 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



mon errors as they arise. For instance, in oral work the 
pupils may not be able to use gone and went or saw or seen 
correctly. When this is observed, the class may spend a 
few minutes studying this and may even have a home 
assignment upon it and the teacher will later catch up the 
errors when they occur again. In written work the teacher 
may observe errors and treat them similarly. 

Whether a separate period is used for composition work 
or not the teacher should ascertain the commonest errors of 
all the pupils and use these as the basis for language study. 
Instances should be collected from their own speech and 
writing and particularly those in which they have been mis- 
understood because of incorrectness. There is a tremendous 
advantage in using the pupils' own errors. They have a 
keen interest in knowing and using the correct form. The 
teacher is saved much worry and expostulating. He takes 
the attitude : "Here is what you said ; What are you going 
to do about it?" I remember very well one boy's saying 

under these conditions, "Why, Miss , / didn't say that, 

I never do." He was in a very teachable mood when the 
teacher showed him his written work containing the identical 
error. 

It is stated in a previous chapter (p. 226) that the teacher 
can psychologize subject-matter effectively only when the 
peculiarities of each individual class are taken into account. 
The language text is of use as a handy drill exercise book 
in which the common errors can be arranged in systematic 
form, the teacher selecting the topics as they are needed 
in his class. To-day the rule studied may be on page 24, 
to-morrow on page 159, and the following day on page 47. 

Application of Composition. — Incidental study of lan- 
guage should be carried on after, or while composition is 
being studied in a separate period. In high school work too 



METHODS OF SECURING MOTIVES 



253 



little of this is done. What is required is that the teachers 
of the subjects other than English should insist upon as high 
standards of English as does the composition teacher. And 
time should be taken in a physics class to note common 
errors. If a pupil in physics is a serious offender because 
of negligence or poor training he should be put into a 
hospital class in English composition where he can receive 
special attention and assistance. Moreover, teachers of all 
subjects should report to the composition teachers the 
commonest errors they find, in order that this teacher may 
be guided in arranging and emphasizing his topics and 
treatment of the subject. 

Section 2. Reading 

Oral reading has a function similar to that of language, 
but differing in that the reader transmits to his audience 
the thing that he thinks valuable expressed in the language 
of someone else. But before he can read effectively he must 
make the value his own, and consequently in oral reading 
the situation is the same as in language. 

The Motive in Oral Reading. — To build up the motive 
for reading the reader must feel that he has something 
worth reading with which his audience is unacquainted. 
Reading is likely to lack motive if everybody reads from 
the same book, and if each reader knows that everyone 
else knows as much about it as he does, probably more if 
he reads poorly. To obviate this, and to give a motive for 
reading, three devices may be mentioned : First, the pupils 
may be allowed regularly to bring to class clippings, jokes, 
short stories, sidelights on other lessons, etc., and read 
these. Second, the class may regularly be divided into two 
sections, and each section be allowed to have a different text- 
book. Then as each section reads, the other section consti- 



254 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



tutes an audience. Third, pupils in the study of other sub- 
jects, when exact information upon points of dispute or 
methods of procedure is lacking, may be allowed to turn 
to their books to find and read the sentences that will give 
the desired information. 

How the Audience Helps. — To introduce the forms of 
good reading, such as enunciation, pronunciation, and carry- 
ing quality of the voice, it is only necessary to make the 
reader aware of his deficiencies by appealing to the audi- 
ence. For instance, the other section of the class may re- 
port that they cannot hear the reader. Then he has a. 
motive for learning to speak distinctly because he wants 
the audience to hear the fine story he is reading. Rules 
for speaking distinctly will be forthcoming from the teacher 
and the class. 

Silent Reading. — In silent reading, where the pupil is 
reading to get the idea rather than to convey it to others, 
conditions are reversed. Here the author has the thing of 
value, and the reader does not have it but is interested in it. 
Motives for studying the forms of silent reading easily 
follow from analogy with the foregoing. And it should be 
borne in mind that the demand in life is for ability to read 
silently. Too little recognition is given to the need of train- 
ing in the ability to get the thought. 

"The best reading that the writer has ever heard in a third 
grade was done by children who read to each other. Tlrey 
used the readers in the school, and books from home and 
from the public library. Each child was permitted to make 
a selection and submit it to the teacher for approval. Then 
came the period of preparation, extending often over two 
or three days or even a week. During this time the child 
was supposed to study the selection carefully, learn the pro- 
nunciation of difficult words, and practice reading the selec- 



METHODS OF SECURING MOTIVES 



^55 



tion so that he might give pleasure to those for whom the 
reading was done. The one good reason for reading aloud 
is to read to an audience who cares to hear what you have 
to offer. These children were participating in a social situ- 
ation which demanded much of them, and they enjoyed the 
hard work which was necessary because the motive back 
of it all was genuine." 1 

Section 3. Writing 

The Function of Writing. — Writing is an offshoot of 
language. It has the same general function — to communi- 
cate things of value to others who do not have them. Its 
specific function is to attend to the form of letters. Evi- 
dently the forms of letters should be drilled upon when 
the pupil sees that he cannot make his meaning clear be- 
cause his writing is illegible. Legibility is the final standard. 
If he sees that something he wishes to say is misunder- 
stood, or is understood with difficulty because he writes 
illegibly, he will have a motive for studying the writing 
forms. 

A Motive for Practice. — The following device, which 
may be used from the sixth grade up, makes the writer 
conscious of his deficiencies and anxious to remedy them. 
Suppose we go on the assumption that a child whose writing 
is reasonably legible does not need to have special writing 
lessons. This is a fair assumption. Then make the writing 
period one in which only those who write their composition, 
arithmetic, geography, or history work illegibly shall re- 
ceive special instruction, and as soon as the writing in these 
subjects becomes legible they will be excused from the 
writing class. This has several advantages. It raises the 
general tone of writing. It makes those who write illegibly 

1 Strayer, Brief Coarse in Teaching Process, pp. 133-4. 



256 METHODS OF TEACHING 

feel a need for writing legibly. Moreover, it provides that 
since only a few of the pupils, and these the poor writers, 
are in the class, the teacher can spend his time to better 
advantage in teaching them. 

Section 4. History 

In the chronological study of history the problem of the 
new unit usually can be made to rise out of the previous 
units. For if there is a central problem running through 
the whole period of history, each event is usually an attempt 
on the part of the nation to solve that problem which 
though in reality always the same, presents new phases, be- 
cause some new factors come in to disturb the conditions 
already present. 

This will be at once evident if we notice the arrange- 
ment of the following three lessons. We are to presuppose 
that the function of the subject-matter upon the Revolution- 
ary Period is to show the relation of that period to the 
growth of the Union. Similarly, the function of each unit 
within the period must be to contribute to this main func- 
tion. It will be observed in the lessons selected that the 
subject-matter is organized according to three main divi- 
sions : ( 1 ) The conditions giving rise to the event, which 
are subdivided into (a) old conditions and (b) new fac- 
tors, and these, again, into subdivisions for and against 
union. The new factor raises the problem. (2) The event 
which results as an attempt to solve the problem. (3) The 
success of the solution (in terms of the main problem). 
This division has one advantage over the conventional di- 
vision — cause, events, result — in that it focalizes the atten- 
tion upon the problem aspect of history and tends to empha- 
size the continuous persistence of the problem studied. 



METHODS OF SECURING MOTIVES 



Lesson I. Albany Conference, 1754. 



257 



A. Conditions giving rise to the conference. 

1. Old conditions. 

(a) Working against union — in general, local interests. 

(1) Religious differences — Catholics, Episcopalians, 

Puritans, and Baptists viewed each other 
with intolerance. 

(2) Political differences. 

i. Town government in the North, county in 
South, and mixed in Middle States. 

ii. Different classes of Colonies — royal, charter, 
and proprietary. 

(3) Social differences. 

i. Holders of large estates in the South, and 
small farmers in the North. 

ii. Cavalier ideals in South, Puritan ideals in 
North. 

iii. Wide differences in wealth and social position 
in South, small differences in North. 

iv. In South only industry agriculture, in North 
industries varied, both in and outside of 
the home, 
v. Lack of transportation facilities tended to em- 
phasize isolation. 

(b) Working for union — necessity for defense against 

the French and Indians, for which purpose 
conferences were called, coalitions formed 
from time to time. 

2. New factor (giving rise to new form of problem) — 

serious nature of hostility between the colo- 
nies and the French and Indians immediately 



258 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



preceding the French and Indian war, 

1754-63. 

B. Albany Conference, 1754. This came as a solution to 

the problem of defense, and was called at 
the request of the mother country. 

1. Franklin's plan — Colonies should combine for 

(a) Defense against incursions, 

(b) Regulation of Indian affairs, 

(c) Levying of taxes. 

2. Made treaty with Iroquois. 

C. Success of Conference. 

1. Colonies, still afraid of loss of independence, looked 

with indifference upon proposals to com- 
bine (too much royal prerogative). 

2. British government indifferent because of danger of 

thereby revealing to the Colonies their own 
strength (too democratic). 

3. Brought the idea of union into the realm of practical 

politics. 

Lesson II. The Seven Years' War, 1756-63. 

A. Conditions giving rise to the war. 

1. Old conditions. 

(a) English policy of territorial expansion. 

(b) French policy of territorial expansion. 

2. New factor — giving rise to problem. 

Coalition of England with Frederick the Great because 
of Hanoverian entanglements, and coalition 
of French w r ith foes of Frederick — war be- 
tween Frederick and his foes. 

B. The Seven Years' war (solution of problem of suprem- 

acy — in America). 
1. Campaign against Duquesne — giving key to the West. 



METHODS OF SECURING MOTIVES 259 

2. Campaign against Louisburg — giving naval control of 

the St. Lawrence. 

3. Campaign against Quebec— giving control of Canada. 
C. Success of the war (in terms of the main problem). 

1. Union was facilitated by 

(a) Active feeling of co-operation among Colonies, 

(b) Consciousness of military strength. 

2. Union was retarded by freedom from invasion. 

Lesson III. Stamp Act Congress, 1765. 

A. Conditions giving rise to the Stamp Act Congress. 

1. Old conditions. 

(a) Factors working for separation. 

(1) As in Lesson I. 

(2) Freedom from invasion (Lesson II). 

(b) Factors working for union — as mentioned in C. 1 

in Lesson II. 

2. New factors — giving rise to problem. 

(a) The mother country began to enforce the policy 

that the Colonies exist for the benefit of the 
mother country. 

(1) Enforcement of Navigation Act, which led to 

(2) Writs of Assistance, 1761, which were obnox- 

ious because subversive of personal liberty. 

(b) Parson's Clause, 1761, an unpopular assertion of 

the royal prerogative. 

(c) Demands on the part of the mother country that 

the Colonies help to defray the expenses of 
the Seven Years' War. 
(1) Difference of opinion — the mother country 
claimed that the war protected the Colo- 
nies, while the Colonies claimed that the war 



260 METHODS OF TEACHING 

was a part of the mother country's imperial 
policy. 

(2) Stamp Act — the instrument by which the mother 

country sought to enforce the demand. 

(3) Serious objection by the Colonies on the ground 

that there should not be taxation without 
representation (riots, formation of patriotic 
societies, etc.). 

B. Stamp Act Congress, 1765 (an attempt to remedy the 

difficulty). 

1. Drew up petitions to the king. 

2. Made Declaration of Rights to parliament. 

C. Success (in terms of the main problem). 

1. Colonies act together again for a common purpose and 

upon their own initiative. 

2. Colonies gained increasing consciousness of power 

(with repeal of Stamp Act). 

Special Occasions. — In the lower grades history is studied 
incidentally and a good deal of history js learned in that 
way. Thanksgiving Day, other national holidays, birthdays 
of great men are made occasions for learning historical facts 
and studying historical material. These present events of 
great interest to pupils and create motives for the study of 
these disconnected stories. Moral errors often are cured 
by historical accounts of good men, and from these various 
sources the pupil, by the time he has reached the fourth 
grade, has quite a considerable fund of history. 

Stories. — When history is begun in the fifth grade it is 
not feasible to have the connected treatment given in the 
foregoing part of this section. It is there at best a collec- 
tion of rather disconnected narrative chiefly stories of great 
men and great events. 



METHODS OF SECURING MOTIVES 261 

But in that case each story can be organized closely within 
itself. It can be gone into in such detail as to give the feel 
of the times. This is very well illustrated in the case of the 
Colonial period by Miss Dopp in The Place of Industries in 
Education, pp. 192 to 242. Here innumerable closely re- 
lated problems grow out of the story. Until a whole field of 
history can be studied systematically the work of the grades 
up to that time should study typical periods systematically 
and in detail. Better a few topics in history made vital 
than many skimmed over for the superficial facts. 

Present Problems as a Motive. — On many occasions pres- 
ent day problems and interests may give the motive for his- 
torical study. In high school the tariff, the negro, the In- 
dian, the Panama Canal, arbitration, the Japanese war scare 
bug-a-boo, are often of such immediate interest as to lead 
to the investigation of their origin and history. In fact 
any intelligent understanding of the problems necessitates 
an historical study. Probably the first half year in high 
school history can with advantage be spent in an historical 
study of modern problems as an introduction to history 
which may then begin systematically with ancient history. 
Certainly modern problems and current events should run 
along parallel with every history course. 

Section 5. Arithmetic 

Arithmetic may be studied incidentally both before and 
after a systematic study has taken place. Systematic arith- 
metic should probably not begin before the fourth grade; 
for it seems clear that if it is begun in that grade the pupils 
will have a better hold upon it at the end of the seventh 
grade than if they began in the first grade. 

If the subject is studied incidentally in the lower grades 



262 METHODS OF TEACHING 

the pupils get what arithmetic they need. And because they 
need it they are likely to understand it better. 

Incidental Work. — If arithmetic is taught inciden- 
tally it is an easy matter to secure motives for its study. 
For instance, in the game of "bean bag" in the primary 
grades, where the pupils try to throw four bags, say, through 
a hoop, a motive for addition may be secured. Each of the 
children may be allowed to put down in a separate column 
on the board the number of bags he throws through the 
hoop, thus giving practice in counting and making figures. 
After going three times around the class the following table. 



might result : 










Mary 


Willie 


John 


Susie 


Tom 


3 


4 


2 


3 


i 


2 


3 


I 


4 


3 


3 


3 


3 


2 


4 



Then the question will be asked, "Who is ahead?" Here 
is a strong motive for adding, for this question cannot be 
settled till the results are added. 

Or, again, in the construction of a flower bed all sorts 
of arithmetic facts will be necessary before the bed is laid 
off, and each pupil given his proper share. Here also the 
motive is strong, and the study of the necessary arithmetic 
will be carried on with vigor. 

Isolated Arithmetic. — But when arithmetic is taught 
as a separate study, and situations have to be found which 
will require the use of its principles in order to get control 
of the situations for which the race has constructed them, 
it is sometimes impossible to find practical situations such 
as can be found if it is taught incidentally, or such as we 
have cited in language, writing, and reading. Then the 



METHODS OF SECURING MOTIVES 263 

teacher has to fall back upon generic values, upon immediate 
interest, or upon imaginary situations. However, in all cases 
in which an appropriate imaginary situation can be devised 
it should be built up. A few examples may be given. 

Carrying in Addition. — Some teachers teach carrying 
in addition by dramatizing bookkeeping. The children are 
bookkeepers for the Chicago Flagstaff Company. The staffs 
for shipping are done up in bundles of ten. Three dealers in 
Oskaloosa, Iowa, send in orders, one for one bundle and 
six separate staffs; one for two bundles and four separate 
ones; and the last for one bundle and five separate ones. 
They are all to be done up in bundles to be broken in Oska- 
loosa. How many bundles? The value here is to do the 
work of the "bookkeepers" and to order the bundling to 
be done. The carrying must be performed before this can 
be done. 

Business Forms. — Again, by establishing a "bank" in 
the school and allowing the pupils to carry it on, at first, 
without instruction, it is possible to have them feel the need 
for written promissory notes, for receipts, or for checks. 
These will, then, be better understood, because the pupils 
are conscious of how things are going wrong when they 
are not used, and will "discover" them as means for keeping 
correct accounts. 

Cancellation. — An example of a very good method of 
introducing the rules for testing for factors by sight is the 
following, which illustrates how a practical situation may be 
created when arithmetic is studied as a separate subject. 
Take, for instance, the rule of divisibility by three. We 
know that if the sum of the digits is divisible by three the 
number is divisible by three. The function is to give 
rapidity in cancellation. We may teach this by appealing 
to immediate interest, and state the aim, "Let us find a quick 



264 METHODS OF TEACHING 

way of telling when a number is divisible by three." But 
it is more effective to arouse a need for it. This may be 
done as follows: The children are supposed to think that 
rapidity in cancellation is worth while. To bring this value 
actively into consciousness give a few exercises, such as 
27 19 24 
— , — , — , working for rapidity. The teacher's next prob- 

54 57 36 

lem is to make the children see that they are not so rapid as 
they might be ; that is, that they have not full control of the 
value. This may be done in a variety of ways. Perhaps a 

729 

particularly difficult problem may be given, such as . 

2181 
While the children are laboring with it the teacher may work 
it out on the board, and then before they have finished 
may say, "I have already finished ; you are slow," etc. And 
may explain further, "I didn't do it more rapidly because I 
am a better divider than you are. I have a short way." 
This will make them conscious of slowness, and will give 
them a stronger motive for learning the rule than does mere 
immediate interest. The time spent in securing a motive is 
well spent. 

Section 6. Physics 

There is probably no subject more capable of interested 
pursuit than is physics. The pupils are surrounded with 
levers, bridges, houses, door-bells, automobiles, eye-glasses, 
and thousands of other things whose inner workings are 
explained by physics. 

But most physics text-books are so much concerned with 
giving a systematic and mathematical treatment of the sub- 
ject that the pupils are overwhelmed and discouraged. 

The teacher should do this : First, cut away from the 



METHODS OF SECURING MOTIVES 265 

order of the text, disregard the mathematical explanations 
that explain principles to the teacher but obscure them for 
the pupils. Take up objects such as those mentioned above 
and explain them. This would not be systematic, but it 
would be intelligible. Then, second, after covering the prin- 
ciples incidentally as suggested, the latter part of the course 
can be given to a systematic study of the text. Perhaps two 
months out of nine will be sufficient for this, and when the 
pupils come to it they will be able to understand what is 
being done. 

References for Class Reading 

Hall, Adolescence, Vol. 11, Chap. 12. 

Dopp, Place of Industries in Elementary Education, 

pp. 192-242. 

Exercises 

1. Work out method of securing motives in three con- 
secutive lessons in the systematic study of geography, arith- 
metic, physiology, physics, zoology, botany, chemistry, draw- 
ing, woodworking, cooking, Latin, French, German, reading, 
or such of these as you are familiar with. 

2. State the practical problems that might be used as a 
point of attack in studying the following subjects incident- 
ally: civics, physiology through hygiene and sanitation, 
botany through agriculture, physics through its applications, 
chemistry through cooking, color through house decoration, 
physical geography, writing, music, and woodworking. 
Clothe these problems in as catchy language as is consonant 
with their true meaning. 



CHAPTER XVI 

FORMS OF INSTRUCTION 

Section i. "Telling" 

Definition. — When the teacher "tells" pupils a fact or 
principle, what he does is to give them a ready-made method 
of control. For instance, when a child does not know how 
to make a 'certain stitch in sewing, the teacher may say to 
her, "I will show you how." In cooking, the teacher may 
explain and show the pupils how to cook starches. In 
painting, the pupils may be shown how to hold the brush 
and how to mix their paints. In arithmetic, the children 
may be shown the mechanical forms of solution, or they 
may be given the formula for the area of a circle. In 
writing, the forms of the letters are given, and in spelling, 
the order of the letters. In history, facts are told, descrip- 
tions given, pictures shown. 

It is evident from a survey of a mass of methods of which 
these are types, that much has to be given to pupils ready 
made. x "It is clear that progress is rendered possible by 
the fact that we may assimilate and turn to our own use 
certain of the judgments that have been worked out by our 
predecessors. In this way we profit, not only by our own 
experience, but also by the experience of others. If this 
were not the case, each would have to repeat, step by step, 
the monotonous history of those who had preceded him, 
subject to the same sources of error and making all the 

1 Baglcy, Educative Process, p. 257. 

2m 



FORMS OF INSTRUCTION 267 

mistakes and blunders that they had made. But through 
the organization of experiences in judgment form, the mis- 
takes are gradually eliminated. Each generation inherits 
from its predecessors innumerable systems of judgments 
which represent years, perhaps centuries, of selection and 
elimination. It is hardly too much to say that, for every 
fact and principle that survives, a thousand false judgments 
and erroneous principles have been eliminated. The former 
constitute our intellectual heritage ; the latter have been 
forgotten/' 

Advantages of "Telling." — Ready-made methods of 
control have a large place and great value in education and 
life. When the feet are to be kept dry and warm, ready- 
made shoes are bought. When the house is to be lighted, 
we turn the switch. When our health is to be improved, we 
get some medicine from the doctor. When we wish to visit 
a friend, we make use of the electric car. When we wish 
to paint the house, we buy prepared paints. When a man 
desires to appease his hunger, he eats the foods prepared 
in the kitchen or restaurant. These are only a few of all 
the methods of control that we accept without necessarily 
understanding them. 

Moreover, they are efficient in giving control, not always 
perfect control, but they give reasonable satisfaction. Ready- 
made shoes keep the feet warm and dry, electric lights 
illuminate the house, the doctor's medicine helps the patient, 
the electric car carries us to our destination, the prepared 
paint beautifies and preserves the house, and the cook's food 
appeases hunger. 

''Telling" is also in some cases satisfactory. The reason 
for this is that we can use a method of control in securing 
what we desire even when the method is ready-made. The 
forms of letters which are prescribed by convention will 



268 METHODS OF TEACHING 

convey our meanings better, perhaps, than any we could 
invent. The same is true of orthographic forms. Receipts 
in domestic science are usually more efficient than those 
made by pupils by experiment. The facts of history cannot 
be gained except upon authority. 

Moreover, if we did not use ready-made methods at all 
we would be as helpless as the first man, more so, in fact, 
for he had his ready-made instincts and reflexes suited to 
his condition to fall back upon. So "telling" in its broader 
aspect keeps the children from being incompetent. Life 
is so short that if they do not accept these inheritances 
they will be able to make little advance, will, indeed, fall 
far behind the generation which bore them. The wild boys, 
who have been discovered, are object lessons in lack of 
control because of dependence upon their own efforts. 

Section 2. Developing Subject-Matter 
In a recitation where there are three factors — pupils, text- 
book, and teacher — the emphasis may be placed upon any 
one of the three. 

Text-book Method. — If the emphasis is placed on the 
text-book while the teacher and the pupils follow it we 
have the text-book method of teaching. This is an old 
method of teaching, used until a few years ago almost 
entirely in the schools below the university. The use of 
this method implies that the lessons shall be assigned in 
the text, and usually it is recited as the text states it. In 
more recent times it is still used extensively, and in actual 
operation consists in the teacher making an assignment for 
home study in advance of today's lesson and in having the 
pupils recite upon it tomorrow. 

An instance comes to mind in English history. The 
teacher had assigned ten pages in advance the night before 



FORMS OF INSTRUCTION 269 

I visited the class. In the recitation which I observed all 
the pupils that could be accommodated at the board were 
arranged in order. There were six topics assigned the night 
before, so the pupils number from 1 to 6, and then the 
seventh called himself 1, the eighth, 2, in the ordinary way. 
All the is were asked to write on one topic, all the 2s 
upon another. After they had written they took their seats, 
and the teacher and the class went over each topic and 
picked out errors. This occupied the whole period. At 
the close of the period the next six or seven pages were 
assigned for next day. 

The teacher considered his whole business to consist in 
seeing if the pupils remembered the facts in the lesson. No 
emphasis was placed upon anything the pupils did or wanted. 
They were looked upon as memory machines. Here we 
have chief emphasis upon the text-book. But pupils and 
teachers are factors in the recitation, though not considered 
to be so important as the text. 

Lecture Method. — If the emphasis is placed upon the 
teacher, and the text and pupils are minimized, we have 
what is called the lecture method. This method is commoner 
in colleges than in other schools, though not so common as 
it was a few years ago. Pulpit sermons are also examples 
of the lecture method. 

The chief difficulties with the lecture methods are these: 
The teacher does not know the problems of the pupils, and 
so cannot give them subject-matter in such a form as to 
solve their problems. Most of what the lecturer gives is 
not understood by the pupils, nor is any need for it felt. 

There are, however, many cases in which a few minutes 
of connected discourse can be given with advantage by the 
teacher. When a topic has reached the point for a sum- 
mary, when discussion has proceeded far enough, the teacher 



2jo METHODS OF TEACHING 

sometimes can sum up to advantage. This gives a logical 
arrangement as shown in Chapter XII. Elaboration Im- 
material which the pupil cannot secure for himself can be 
given in lecture form. But where lecturing is the only form 
of instruction, nobody but the teacher is working very 
much. And he often adopts the lecture form because it is 
easier for him than developing or using a text. 

Here, again, the pupil is minimized. His business is to 
take in the important subject-matter, the lecture. 

Developing Method. — If the emphasis is placed upon 
the pupil, and the text-book and teacher are viewed as instru- 
ments, in the proper functioning of his activity we have 
the developing method. In terms of control, the developing 
method may be described as a method by which the pupil 
works out his own methods and control with such assist- 
ance from teacher and text as is economical of time and 
effort. In terms of judgment, Bagley says this method 
places the pupil under conditions that will impel him to 
form judgments for himself. 1 The developing method 
leads the pupils to reason, the "telling" method to remember. 

In terms of activity, McMurry says with this method "the 
minds of the pupils are active in producing thought," they 
ask questions, and in expressing thought use their own 
words rather than those of the book or the teacher. 

Standard. — The test of a good development lesson is a 
maximum of intelligent effort with a minimum of assist- 
ance from text and teacher such as to produce the highest 
degree of efficiency. There are two extremes. On the one 
hand, there may be no assistance, only unaided effort on 
the part of the pupils. This is not efficient ; it is wasteful. 
The pupils make too many costly errors. On the other hand, 
there may be so much assistance that the pupils do nothing. 

1 Educative Process, p. 256. 



FORMS OF INSTRUCTION 



271 



This is equally wasteful and inefficient. The developing 
method has the highest quality when just enough assistance 
is given pupils to enable them to do their work with the 
highest rate and degree of efficiency. Where this point of 
maximum efficiency lies has to be decided in each individual 
case. 

Developing Solutions. — The developing method seeks 
to have the pupils do certain things as much for themselves 
as efficient use of time and effort will permit. It aims to 
have the pupil find his own problems for himself, to gather 
as much data as he can for himself — above all, to make his 
own hypothesis, and also to verify for himself. The whole 
process is thrown over on him. The text offers hints and 
suggestions for all of these, and the teacher is safeguarded 
against fruitless blundering. 

From this it is evident that the developing method cannot 
be worked out in any certain way before the teacher goes 
to the class. For the trend of the teacher's directions and 
suggestions will be determined by what line the pupils take 
and by the kind of assistance they need. 

Yet, at the same time, a teacher, like a general, should 
have a tentative plan of campaign worked out before enter- 
ing upon the lesson; but it must be a plan subject to 
revision at a moment's notice. 

Advantages of the Developing Plan. — In the first place, 
it assists the memory in retaining the method. This is true 
because there is a good deal of repetition, because it makes 
associations at every point of progress, and because atten- 
tion is keen by virtue of the vigorous working of the mind. 

In the second place, it enables the student to reconstruct 
the method when memory fails to recall it. If he begins 
with his old methods, by reorganizing them he may be able 
to reason the organization out again. To be sure, he may 



272 METHODS OF TEACHING 

forget these also, but if he has once worked them out he 
is more advantageously situated for reconstructing the 
method than if he had merely accepted the method and 
had not constructed it. 

In the third place, he has a better hold upon it when he 
uses it. He understands it better, and understands better 
the uses to which it may be put. The motorman who under- 
stands the mechanics of his car is better able to control it 
than he would be if he had been taught only the way to 
turn the lever. The scientist who has worked the theory of 
evolution through for himself will be better able to apply 
it to problems than will the one who has accepted the theory 
on authority. For, after all, problems of the same type are 
not all alike. They differ, at least a little, and when they 
differ the method has to be modified. If the student has 
constructed it, he then can see better how it may be changed, 
and by being changed become more effective. He under- 
stands it. 

In the fourth place (in amplification of the last mentioned 
advantage), when the method is remembered but fails to 
work, he can modify it to apply to the special conditions. 
And herein lies the weakness of the ready-made method. 
If it is accepted ready-made and breaks down, the user is 
helpless. But if he understands its construction he can 
make it work again. For instance, when a coat does not 
fit, the customer may be helpless, but the maker can remedy 
the trouble. If the electric lights go out, the consumer is 
helpless, but the electrician can set them going again. If 
the medicine does not restore health, the patient can do 
nothing, but the doctor can re-examine the patient and 
compound other medicines that will be more likely to work. 
When the electric car stops, the passengers sit and wait, 



FORMS OF INSTRUCTION 273 

but the mechanic sets it going again. When the food does 
not satisfy, the cook is the one who can change the method 
of preparation. In all these cases, the one who understands 
the method of construction is best able to set things going 
when some part fails to work. And this ability gives one 
tremendous advantage in practical life. 

In the fifth place, the habit of thinking things through, of 
trying and experimenting, is a good one to form. Nor is 
this to be discounted because of arguments against formal 
discipline. (For we have identity of procedure and of sub- 
stance and ideals that do not need to be carried over.) If 
the developing plan is carried on in every subject, then, in 
so far as the subjects are germane to life, there will be with 
life the closest identity of both procedure and substance. 
And, if the ideal of understanding is realized in every sub- 
ject there will be no necessity for carrying it over to 
other subjects. 

Limitations of the Developing Method. — McMurry 1 
gives three limitations. He says that not everything can 
be developed ; second, that it is an extremely difficult method 
to follow ; and, third, that the intellectual treasures of the 
past lie locked up in books. 

Not everything can be developed, because, in the first 
place, many methods that the children can use ready-made 
are too difficult for them to construct. We have to tell 
them many things for which we cannot explain the reason. 
Excellent foods may be cooked without a knowledge of the 
chemistry of the foods to show why the ingredients act as 
they do. Historical events are sometimes told to children 
without the reasons for the events being made evident. In 
the second place, not everything that might be developed 

x Op. cit, pp. 142-143. 



274 METHODS OF TEACHING 

ought to be developed. There is not time to do so. And 
even though it be true, as McMurry says, that nine-tenths 
of what is taken up in school is forgotten, it does not follow 
that only one-tenth of the school work should be covered, 
and that by the developing method. For undoubtedly some 
of the methods of control thr.t are most useful are such 
that they cannot be developed. 

That the developing method is extremely difficult to follow 
is undoubtedly true. If the test of efficiency were merely 
the asking of questions it would be an easy matter, but 
when the standard is that of giving the children the privi- 
lege of doing the experimenting, it is different. For ques- 
tions may be merely the dress in which "telling" masquer- 
ades. Then, again, too many questions make the progress 
too easy and lead to puerile thinking. Efficient use of the 
method does not depend upon questions, but upon the char- 
acter of the questions ; upon whether or not they stimulate 
thought. 

A fourth limitation which McMurry mentions in another 
connection, is that it is open to the danger of wandering. 
The reason for this is that the teacher has temporarily to 
forsake the exact order of logical organization, in order to 
follow the lead of the children. But if the problem is kept 
in mind, if the solution to be arrived at is clearly under- 
stood by the teacher, this danger will be obviated, in part 
at least. Then, too, the teacher may think out how he will 
develop the lesson, and may determine the "pivotal" ques- 
tions, to use McMurry's phrase. To be sure, he may not 
follow this sequence, because the children may not give the 
answers he desires. But with increasing skill in teaching 
he will be able to foresee more accurately ; and, at the worst, 
even if he has to discard his development plan, to have 



FORMS OF INSTRUCTION 275 

thought out some plan will be of assistance in making a 
new one when required. 

Developing vs. "Telling." — What shall be developed, 
and what shall be given ready-made? We have no scien- 
tific data upon which to base a method of procedure. Any 
statement made must rest upon an empirical basis. It seems 
reasonable to say that those methods of control which will 
be the most useful and whose construction is within the 
power of the children, should be developed. All facts of 
temporary importance may be "told," unless very easy and 
capable of rapid development. All principles, no matter 
though they be important, if at the same time their basis 
is beyond the children's power, may be given ready-made, 
or delayed till they can be worked out. But all the methods 
(principles or facts) which should be in the possession of 
the pupils, because of frequent use or of fundamental impor- 
tance, and which the pupils can construct for themselves, 
may, as just said above, be developed. 

To take a simple illustration from geography: The geo- 
graphical conditions that make a city great should be 
developed, but the size of the city must be told. The first 
is within the power of children, who are usually taught the 
facts; the second is not particularly important, and, of 
course, could not be developed, since it would necessitate a 
visit to the city and the counting of its inhabitants. And, 
again, the rules for division by fractions and for the extract- 
ing of the square root should not be developed in the eighth 
grade, the former because too difficult, though important, 
the latter because both too difficult and unimportant. 

To avoid confusion, it may be said in concluding that 
both developing and "telling" usually occur in the same 
lesson. Some data are given by the teacher, some are 



276 METHODS OF TEACHING 

collected by the pupils, some suggestions are made by the 
teacher and others by the pupils. 

References for Class Reading 

Bagley, Educative Process, pp. 256-264. 

McMurry, The Method of the Recitation, pp. 1 18-146. 

Exercises 

1. Name ten things that you have found out for your- 
self during the last ten days. 

2. Does it ever happen that you are better satisfied to 
have some person tell you something outright than to merely 
give you hints and hold back a full explanation ? Illustrate. 

3. Developing is used very little outside of school. 
People generally give you information outright when you 
ask for it. Is that a weakness ? 

4. Is a sequence of important facts a good sign of the 
use of the developing type ? Why ? 

5. How can you have any developing of a topic if you 
use a text-book which explains the topic? 

6. Why is it that a teacher never gets to know his 
pupils' needs when he lectures all the time? 

7. Is it necessary or advisable in developing a solution 
to always grade the questions starting from easy ones and 
going to difficult ? 

8. How would you evaluate this teacher's statement? — 
I have never asked a question which my class could not 
answer. 

q. Give two outstanding examples of cases in which you 
remembered a thing much better when you worked it out 
than when told you ; two in which you understood the 
subject better under the same conditions. 



FORMS OF INSTRUCTION 



*77 



10. If you are observing classes, note cases in which the 
development is poor, and state the reason. 

ii. Note in this observation cases in which a point should 
have been developed instead of being told, and one of the 
opposite sort in which an attempt at development might 
better have been omitted and the facts told. 



CHAPTER XVII 

TEXT-BOOKS 

Section i. Introductory 

In the last chapter the text-book method was described 
briefly. This chapter will deal with the text-book more 
extensively and will endeavor to show that the text-book 
when used in a certain way is a legitimate part of the 
developing method. This is in opposition to McMurry, 
who says, 1 "Neither does she (in the developing method) 
fillow the facts that are to be learned to be first presented 
through a text-book ; she prefers to develop facts and con- 
clusions by conversation with the pupils." 

We shall endeavor to show that in some cases the text- 
book does not give an efficient amount of assistance, and 
in other cases does. In this latter case it belongs to the 
highest type of developmental work. 

What Is a Text-book? — Briefly, a text-book is simply 
a vehicle for the transmission of solutions of problems. This 
is merely another case of the frequently repeated principle 
of the earlier chapters on subject-matter. 

Form. — Text-books fail to do good service frequently 
because they are too difficult, as any reader can easily verify 
for himself. In the second place, as Bagley points out, 
they appeal only to the eye; while with many pupils the 
ear is the better means of approach for ideas. 

1 Method of Recitation, pp. 121-122. 

278 



TEXT BOOKS 



279 



Our discussion, however, will deal chiefly with the content 
of the texts. 

Section 2. Problems 

As just said, a text-book is a compilation of solutions of 
problems. Hence, every paragraph, section and chapter 
has a problem of its own. The problem of this chapter I 
am now writing is, What are the best methods of using text- 
books wisely? The problem of this section is, How do texts 
show us the problems they try to solve? The problem of 
this paragraph is, What is the relation of a chapter, para- 
graph, or section to problems ? 

We do not usually ask, What is the problem in this 
paragraph? We rather say, What is the point of the para- 
graph ? What is the topic discussed ? or, What is the theme ? 
But we imply the problem because the point, topic, or theme 
is the solution of some problem. If the theme is text-books, 
then the problem is, What is the best method of handling 
text-books? If the point made is that texts are aids to 
keen thinking, the problem is, What are texts? 

Methods of Showing Problems. — Sometimes the prob- 
blem is set forth by a question. On page 93, Chapter VI, 
the paragraph begins, "And now, what becomes of this 
breath which passes our lips?" Here the problem of the 
paragraph is set forth clearly. 

Again, the theme may be set out in black face, as is the 
case in this text. A few lines above we find the words, 
"Methods of Showing Problems." This is the topic; the 
problem is, What are the methods of showing problems? 
This merely requires a little juggling to bring out the 
problem in problem form. 

Occasionally marginal insertions are made, as, for in- 
stance, in Chapter XI of Dewey's Hoiv We Think, insertions 
are made down the margins of pages, the dash here indi- 



2 8o METHODS OF TEACHING 

eating the end of each insertion: "Empirical thinking de- 
pends upon past habits — it is fairly adequate in some mat- 
ters — but is very apt to lead to false beliefs — and does not 
enable us to cope with the novel — and leads to laziness and 
presumption — and to dogmatism." Here we have the solu- 
tion syllabicated. The student, glancing at the marginal 
readings, knows what to look for in reading the body of 
the text. 

Topic sentences are usually put at the beginning of para- 
graphs, and show what solution or problem is presented. 
"A man of polite imagination is let into a great many pleas-. 
ures that the vulgar are not capable of receiving. He can 
converse with a picture, and find an agreeable companion in 
a statue. He meets with a secret refreshment in a descrip- 
tion, and often feels a greater satisfaction in the prospect 
of fields and meadows than another does in the possession 
of them. It gives him a kind of property in everything he 
sees, and makes the most rude, uncultivated parts of nature 
administer to his pleasures. So that he looks on the world 
in another light, and discovers in it a multitude of charms 
that conceal themselves from the generality of mankind." — 
Addison. 

Titles in a general way often throw light on the specific 
problem to be discussed. Methods of Teaching is fairly 
exact. So also is Practical Rhetoric. Chapter headings 
indicate the subject and imply the problem. Sometimes 
they do not, as in Hamlet, Kubla Kahn, Macbeth. Hamlet's 
problem is the problem of indecision, and Macbeth's, of 
unfettered ambition, — problems not shown in the title. 

Sometimes the problem cannot be put into the phrasing 
of a single sentence. Genung says, 1 "When the paragraph 

1 Practical Rhetoric, p. 195. 



TEXT BOOKS 28 1 

is descriptive or narrative, or when it is merely an accumu- 
lation of details of any kind, the subject cannot be so easily 
reduced to a proposition, but must be gathered from the 
general bearing of the whole." 

Sometimes the text shows how the problem arises ; usually 
it takes the value of the problem for granted. Note, for 
instance, the problems this text discusses. Run through the 
section headings and the introductory paragraphs of each 
section and see that only occasionally is it shown how the 
problems discussed arise. Texts usually assume that the 
problem discussed is potential and will become active as 
soon as it is mentioned. 

Weakness of Text. — In spite of all this effort to make 
the problems clear, many texts are not coherently written 
and are difficult to analyze into problems. Then, again, the 
assumption that interest in the problem will spring out at 
the beck of the reader is not safe. Hence, material may 
be read presenting solutions of problems which the pupil 
does not have and he may read because of certain generic 
motives, as the performance of a required task. 

To use the text intelligently, it is therefore necessary that 
the problem of the unit be a problem in the minds of the 
pupil. In other words, pupils should usually not approach 
a text without the problem having been made active by the 
teacher, or otherwise. The order of the text can seldom be 
followed without digression. 

For instance, in teaching the first edition of this text the 
writer has taken up the chapters in this order : Control of 
Values, XII ; Forms of Instruction, XIII : Methods of 
Development, XIV ; Motive, IX ; Motive, VIII ; etc. On 
other occasions, with other classes, the order has been 
changed again. In no case has the identical order been 



282 METHODS OF TEACHING 

maintained twice. And if a teacher using his own text 
feels under necessity of changing the order of the problems 
from class to class and from year to year, in order to get 
into closest touch with the students' problems as they unfold 
in serial form, it is evident that one using a text which he 
did not write would have to vary the order still further. 
Yet there are teachers who will not vary the order of selec- 
tions even in a reader. 

Section 3. Data 

Weakness of Text. — As a means of developing subject^ 
matter and allowing the student to participate in the full 
solution of a problem, the text has a serious handicap, with 
regard to data, in that the data collected are not all shown. 
Only those used are mentioned. 

The following interesting case given by a student illus- 
trates this : 

"A few months ago I was preparing an article for the 
Missouri School Journal on the subject of ethics in high 
school. The main problem was, 'How can practical ethical 
instruction be given to high school students ?' and that was 
divided into four sub-problems : 

1. Showing the importance attached by the public to 

ethical questions. 

2. The immediate need of practical ethical instruction 

for young people of high school age. 

3. The various objections to be raised to doing this. 

4. Best methods of giving such instruction. 

I accumulated a great deal of data, especially data that had 
to do with the first point, of the importance of ethical ques- 
tions. The first outline will show the data that were at 
hand and the second will show the outline of the article as 
finally written : 



TEXT BOOKS 283 

I. How Can Practical Ethical Instruction Be Given to 
High School Students? 

a. Proofs of the importance attached by the public to 
questions of ethics. 

1. Change at the Missouri penitentiary from the old 
striped convicts' suits. 

2. Adoption of a parole system for first offenders. 

3. Industrial farm near Kansas City, for boy law- 
breakers. 

4. The rule adopted by the Bankers' Association of 
Kansas in regard to borrowing money to purchase 
motor cars. 

5. Increasing interest in arbitration. 

6. The great conservation projects. 

7. Pure Food Law. 

8. Railroad Rate Regulation. 

9. Compulsory Education Laws. 

10. Prosecutions for graft. 

11. The "Insurgent" movement in politics. 

12. The Scout movement. 

13. The Liquor Agitation. 

14. Bank Guaranty Laws. 

15. The "Big Brother" movement at Christmas time. 

16. Boys' Camps. 

17. Free Legal Aid Bureau. 

18. Free Sunday Concerts. 

19. Playgrounds. 

20. Milk Inspection in Cities. 

21. Free Ice in Tenement Districts. 

22. Very general interest in the principle of "the 
square deal." 

II. The Skeleton outline for the article as finally written 



284 METHODS OF TEACHING 

is as follows : How Can Practical Ethical Instruction 
Be Given to High School Students? 
a. Importance of Ethical Questions as shown by the 
public attention to them. 

1. Penitentiary Suits. 

2. Parole System and Industrial Prison Farm. 

3. Laws in regard to Pure Food, Railroad Rates, 
and Compulsory Education. 

4. Graft prosecutions. 

5. "Big Brother" movement and similar projects. 

If a student is to develop his solution and uses the text,, 
he is, of course, handicapped, because he sees only the few 
points selected. He does not have exercise in selecting and 
rejecting the data. 

Reference Work. — However, this can be obviated in 
great part by the use of more than one text and by the 
setting of problems that will require the gathering of data 
from all the sources. 

A student makes the following statement showing how 
this can be carried out in history. In this statement a brief 
resume of what is found in each reference is given to aid 
the reader. 

The lesson is upon the origin and results of Jackson's 
Spoils System. 

The references are as follows: 

Ashley's American History, p. 301, one page. An expla- 
nation of the term "Spoils System" is given. Jackson's 
attitude toward opposing parties is given ; that is, his loyalty 
to friends and his opposition to enemies. He was besieged 
by a number of office seekers who gave him no rest. Fif- 
teen hundred office holders were removed within less than 
a year. No reason was given. No precedent had he for it. 
The "kitchen cabinet" is next described. 



TEXT BOOKS 



285 



Charming, p. 390, one page. Earlier there was little 
change in national party machinery and little change in 
state party machinery, save in Pennsylvania and New York. 
Van Buren and Marcy were important in the state changes 
that had been made, and they saw nothing wrong in the 
spoils belonging to the victor. It was expected that Jackson 
would reward his friends ; this he did. Within nine months 
over one thousand office holders had been removed. Jackson 
wanted good men, but on account of the number a poor 
inspection necessarily was made. He broke away from all 
precedents, and advised freely with his kitchen cabinet. 

Wilson, Division and Reunion, p. 30, four pages. Meeting 
of the Twenty-first Congress took place nine months after 
Jackson's inauguration, and this Congress disclosed many 
evidences of what the new administration was to be. Deli- 
cate questions were to be handled. A radical reconstruction 
of Civil Service had taken place, and it had startled and 
repelled some of the Jackson men. More than one thousand 
removals before Congress met had taken place, against 
seventy-three removals for all previous administrations. 
Adams said that very few reputable appointments were 
made. Webster gave a quotation not complimentary to the 
administration. The number of federal officers was 
increasing yearly, and the crisis in public service had now 
come, and in the removals Van Buren said, "We give no 
reason." The Senate rejected some of the worst names, 
and looked for means to defeat unprecedented schemes, but 
failed. The President's message gave some explanations 
for the removals, but they were very vague. His explana- 
tions were as follows : He spoke of the corrupting influence 
of long terms of office. No one ever acquired the right to 
office by holding it. Yet no proof was given that these long 
termed officers had been corrupt. 



286 METHODS OF l EACHING 

Jackson, however, was probably nol responsible for the 
unworth) men, ye! .1 great many mistakes were made. This 
responsibility rested on the officers <>i' Jackson. Jacl 
was a soldier, not a politician. He was controlled largely 
by such men as Van Buren and Marcy; as shown by the 
\lhan\ Regency, he was ruled by politician , 

McLaughlin, p. 324, one page. Before this time ineffi 
cienc) or dishonesty was the cause of the removal of 
office holders. Adams removed only two men in his whole 

term. He did nol reward his friends hy public office. 

Jackson thought thai the office holders under Adams were 
an incompetent and corrupt lot. He thought those who 

supported him were his friends and those who Opposed him 
his enemies. The whole of the administration of Adams 
given no consideration hy Jackson. With this feeling 
and the aid ^\ inllnential men he began the wholesale re 

moval of offne holders and Introduced his Spoils System. 
An excellent definition ^\ the Spoils System was given in 
this text. I le reorganized his cabinet, and many nun were 
n« 'i 1 'i w ide experience. 

Johnson's High School History of the U. S., by Mac- 
Donald, p. 285. Postmasters, clerks, marshals, etc.. not 

Supposed to take part in political contests. They did their 
Work and woe paid lor it. Naturally, Jackson began by 
removing them, regardless of faithfulness. After him, 
Other administrations followed. kins continued until 1SS7. 
when the ( ivil Service was introduced. Net the Spoils 

System had very had results. 



The guiding questions with reference to this lesson should 
he given as follows : 

( 1 ) Tell of the previous conditions in regard to i>\\'\cc 
holding. tSee Ashley, page 301; Wilson, page % ><> and 



TEXT BOOKS 28; 



following; McLaughlin, page 324; and Johnson's Eiigl 
School History of the U. S., by MacDonald, page 285.) 

(2) What conditions arose that caused a change? (See 
Wilson, page 30 and following; McLaughlin, page 324; 
Charining, page 390.) 

(3) Describe these changes. (Wilson, page 30; Chan- 
ning, page 390; Ashley, page 301 ; McLaughlin, page 324.) 

(4) Give results of the new system. (Johnson's High 
School History of the U. S., by MacDonald, page 285, and 
Wilson, page 30 and following; Channing, page 390.) 

An exercise like this will lead to the collection of data 1>\ 
the pupils, and will, in addition, give them a wholesome 
skepticism about the infallibility of a text-book. For, as in 
the above problem, authors not only differ but contradicl 
each other. 

Upon this point Miss Earhart says, 1 "The student is not 
limited to the author's text, however, but may draw upon 
his own experience and upon his imagination. I te may 
read books, papers, and magazines, and may talk with 
people who are informed in regard to the subject he is 
studying. He may perform experiments and make observa 
tions. In any or all of these ways he may supplement the 
author's text and add largely to the material bearing upon 
his problem. The criterion for acceptance lure, as in other 
study, is the relevancy of the facts to the problem. Thai 
which is irrelevant should be rejected, and only the relevanl 
accepted. If, for example, the problem is, 'How the mineral 
products of the Western States have influenced the develop 
ment of those states,' then students engaged upon such a 
problem may neglect all the statements made by the author 
which do not bear upon it, but they must sift out and accept 
that which contributes to its solution. 

1 Teaching Children to Study, pp. 85-6. 



288 METHODS OF TEACHING 

It may be urged by some that this gathering of data will 
consume more time than the class has at its disposal. How- 
ever, rejecting irrelevant matter saves time ; and the exam- 
ining of other sources than the book can be divided among 
the members of the class, so that the labor is divided. The 
interest arising from the presence of a problem will also 
quicken the efforts of the pupils, and so save time." 

Sutherland pricks a bubble blown in the old days of the 
text-book method. 1 "The idea often held that pupils must 
never look into their books while in class, is old-fashioned 
and traditional. Quite often the recitation period may very 
profitably be spent with books open and pupils intent on 
answering questions from maps, interpreting pictures, veri- 
fying inferences, or getting correct meaning from difficult 
sentences. Every teacher who secures good results must 
find such 'study-recitations' necessary. Too often pupils are 
put to tasks without preparation ; waste of time, mental 
confusion, and discouragement are quite sure to follow." 

This does not mean that the text may be used to shield a 
student who does not study. It assumes that students are 
willing but that plenty of problems arise in which reference 
to the text saves time and fosters exactness. 

Section 4. Hypotheses 

Weakness of Text. — In a text-book the author usually 
gives the correct hypothesis and the pupil thereby loses the 
exercise and efficiency gained by participating in hypothesis- 
forming and testing. A few examples will make this clear. 

In a geography we find the sentence, "The great round 
earth is a huge ball, or sphere, called the globe." Needless 
to say, that does not recount the endless arguments pro 
and con, nor take into account the hypotheses which went 

1 The Teaching of Geography, p. 180. 



TEXT BOOKS 289 

before it and which are to-day dying a stubborn death out 
in the open country. 'The body is made of cells." This 
leaves out of account other hypotheses held prior to the 
formulation of this hypothesis. 'The moon is a satellite of 
the earth," "The blood circulates through the arteries, capil- 
laries and veins under the impulse of the beating of the 
heart," are all simple examples that come easily to mind. 

Section 5. Verification 

Text-books frequently make statements (give solutions) 
without attempting to show readers that they are correct. 
Numerous examples of this can be given : 

(1) "Objects may be used as the best means of training 

children to talk with the pencil." 

(2) "The written word to the little child has no element 

of attraction." 

(3) "The foundation of spelling should be learned en- 

tirely by writing ; every word that the child learns 
from the blackboard should be carefully copied on 
paper." 

(4) "Geography is the very best means of developing 

the powers of imagination." 
The author, so far as the reader is concerned, assumes 
these facts to be true. 

Now, if these facts are to be accepted by the reader, they 
must first be verified. 

How Are Facts Verified? — Facts should be put to the 
test to see if they hold for the reader's experience. In the 
statements just made questions like this will arise : 

(1) Is it true that objects are the best means of teaching 
drawing? Couldn't children learn to draw better, 
in the beginning, at any rate, by drawing fanciful 
pictures and by illustrating stories, etc.? 



290 METHODS OF TEACHING 

(2) Do I not know of cases where children were greatly 

attracted by written words? 

(3) Does this exclude visual memory and auditory 

memory? If so, is the statement not too narrow? 

(4) Are literature, fairy stories, and pictures not just as 

good or better means, etc. ? ^ . 

In many cases the author gives his own verification in 
the forms of application. The reader may look over this 
text for cases in which illustrations by way of verification 
are given, and also for instances in which statements are 
made without any attempt to verify for the reader. 

But because of limitations of space, authors are not able 
to give a wide range of applications. Nor are they able 
alwavs to give applications that would be most useful for 
each individual reader. 

It is important, therefore, in every case that the reader 
make his own illustrations and raise his own objections. 
To do this gives pupils much worry, frequently, but if it is 
not done the facts of the text are isolated facts and nothing 
more. Students have to be drilled upon giving examples 
"not found in the text." And even then they do not have a 
wide variety in their examples. This explains why ques- 
tions have been put in at the end of each chapter. The 
students will, by being asked always to give examples, 
develop the habit of application and verification. 

However, as Earhart points out, 1 "It is not intended that 
pupils shall question everything they read or hear. Usually 
they will not need to have doubts as to the reliability of 
the statements made. But the attitude of ready acceptance 
of everything needs to be replaced by the attitude of mind 
which questions that which seems out of harmony with 
previous experience, which is startling in its nature, which 

1 Teaching Children to Study, pp. 93-4. 



TEXT BOOKS 



291 



seems to lack sufficient evidence, or which seems too general 
in its scope. Such instances, and possibly others, furnish 
occasion for thought and investigation as to the validity 
of the material offered. In this respect, text-book study 
does not differ from any other study in which data are 
presented to throw light upon some situation. Judgment 
as to the soundness of statements is usually necessary, 
though due credence should be given to the results of the 
labors of experts in the several fields of knowledge." 

McMurry says, 1 "Whether he likes it or not, the student 
cannot escape the responsibility of determining for himself 
the fairness and general reliability of the newspapers and 
magazines that he reads ; he must expect bias in historians, 
and must measure the extent of it as well as he can by 
studying their biographies and by observing their care in 
regard to data and logic; he must scrutinize very critically 
the ideas of the world's greatest essayists and dramatists. 
If a philosopher like Rousseau offers brilliant truths on one 
page and equally brilliant perversions of truth on the next 
page, the student must ponder often and long in order to 
keep his bearings; and if footnotes attempt to point out 
some of these absurdities, he must decide for himself whether 
Rousseau or the commentator shows the superior wisdom. 
'Above all,' says Koopman, lie (the student) must make 
sure how far he can trust the author.' 

" 'Read not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and 
take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse, but to 
zveigh and consider/ says Bacon. 

" 'Every book we read may be made a round in the ever- 
lengthening ladder by which we climb to knowledge and 
to that temperance and serenity of mind which, as it is the 
ripest fruit of wisdom, is also the sweetest. But this can 

1 How to Study, pp. 138-140. 



292 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



only be if we read such books as make us think, and read 
them in such a way as helps them to do so, that is, by 
endeavoring to judge them, and thus to make them an 
exercise rather than a relaxation of the mind. Desultory 
reading, except as conscious pastime, debilitates the brain 
and slackens the bow-string of Will' — Lowell, Books and 
Libraries. 

'The student, therefore, must set himself up as judge of 
whatever ideas appear before him. They are up for trial 
on their soundness and worth ; he must uncover their merits 
and defects, and pass judgment on their general value. If 
he is hasty and careless, he suffers the penalty of bad judg- 
ment; and if he refrains from judging at all, he becomes 
one who 'does not know his own mind,' a weakling — 

'Who reads 
Incessantly, and to his readings brings not 
A spirit and judgment equal or superior 
Uncertain and unsettled still remains, 
Deep versed in books and shallow in himself.' r 

Alertness and Docility. — Some few pupils display skep- 
ticism. The vast majority are docile and take what is 
given them. This docility is due in part to temperament. 
Most people take ideas without examining them very care- 
fully. It is due in part to the fact that pupils read so much 
in school that is foreign to their experience and cannot very 
easily be verified, that they get into the habit of taking 
things without examination. The lack of training in mental 
alertness is responsible for the remainder. Teachers are 
sadly negligent in leading children to be alert. Perhaps 
teachers themselves are not intellectually alert, because they 
are like most of the people in the world, and because they 
have been made docile in their progress through the educa- 
tional mill. 



TEXT BOOKS 293 

Intensive Study vs. Skimming. — The old text-book 
method assumed that everything in the text was to be learned 
thoroughly and in some cases was to be memorized verbatim. 
But when we use the text in developmental work, the prob- 
lem of the pupil becomes the important factor, and thus 
not everything in the text is of equal value, and some things 
are of no value. It follows, therefore, that frequently pupils 
have to skim texts in search of data or hypotheses or to get 
facts by which to verify. Nor is this a difficult thing for 
pupils in the sixth grade and above, as any teacher who has 
practiced the plan for some time can attest. 

Intensive study, however, is made of certain topics in texts 
where the teacher feels it necessary. Gems of literature, 
arithmetic processes and problems, exact facts in geography, 
and others come vividly to mind. Where intensive study is 
made it should be done exactly and carefully. There is a 
place for skimming and a place for the complete mastery 
of portions of texts. The teacher should decide which is 
necessary with each topic, and should so inform the student, 
who should be held responsible, in the one case, for the 
important facts to be gleaned by skimming, and, in the other, 
for all the selected matter. 

References for Class Reading 

Bagley, School Management, pp. 190-196. 
Earhart, Teaching Children to Study, pp. 83-105. 
McMurry, How to Study, pp. 31-84, pp. 135-160. 
Sutherland, The Teaching of Geography, pp. 1 72-181. 

Exercises 

1. Take a chapter in this text and run through it stating 
explicitly in problem form as a question in each case, the 



294 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



problems of the whole chapter, each section and each para- 
graph. 

2. Does your study show that the chapter selected is 
logically constructed — i. e., does each problem or paragraph 
bear upon the problem of the section and the problems of 
the sections upon the problem of the chapter? If not, do 
you see any excuse for the writer's failure to preserve a 
logical organization? 

3. Pick out from your reading in other subjects five 
cases in which the author shows how, from the incomplete- 
ness that has gone before, a new problem arises which 
must be solved. 

4. Find examples from the texts you are using or 
have used of methods by which the author gives mechanical 
hints to show what the problem to be discussed is (as in 
section 2 of this chapter). 

5. Give an example of where you, if a teacher, or your 
teacher has varied the order of treatment of topics in a text 
and give reasons for the change. 

6. Give, from a paper of your own, an illustration tabu- 
lating the data you collected and the data you rejected 
before writing the paper. Tabulate the points you retained. 

7. Describe from your own work an example of a dif- 
ficult problem in which you formed other hypotheses than 
those you finally wrote. Tabulate the rejected hypotheses 
and the accepted solution. 

8. Prepare a lesson in which the pupils are expected 
to use several texts in solving the problem set. 

9. Give particular instances in which a pupil was handi- 
capped by an attitude too strongly skeptical. Are such pupils 



rare or common 



10. Give five instances in which recently you have prac- 
ticed the virtue of verifying by tests or objections the state- 



TEXT BOOKS 



295 



ments made in a text and found them to be correct so far 
as you could see. 

11. Give five instances in which the statements did not 
seem to you to hold water in the light of your experience. 

12. At what point in the grades is it practicable to be- 
gin to have children use texts in the ways described in this 
chapter ? Give your reasons and illustrations. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

QUESTIONING 

Section i. Function of Questioning 

The function of questioning as a racial tool is to secure 
information from some one who has more information than 
the questioner. This is the ordinary use of the question out- 
side school. There is some value I wish to control. I can- 
not do so. Then I question some one who I believe has the 
information. I am in doubt about what to do. I ask a 
friend, "What would you do?" I may need to know a fact 
in history. I question an historian. I may have an unknown 
infection on my hand. I speak to the doctor. Ordinarily 
outside of school questions are asked by people who are 
seeking information and not by those who give the in- 
formation. 

In school some questions are asked for the elemental pur- 
pose of getting information. But the majority of questions 
are asked by the teacher who knows the answer to the ques- 
tion. In fact, if the teacher asks questions of which he does 
not know the answer, he is ordinarily looked upon by out- 
siders, at any rate, as incompetent. 

The query arises, at once, should not the function of ques- 
tions in school be the same as it is outside of school? And 
the answer to this will be given under a discussion of three 
types — informational, testing, and developing questions. 

Informational Questions. — By informational questions 
is meant questions that are asked because the questioner is 

296 



QUESTIONING 297 

seeking for information that he does not possess. Such 
questions do arise in school work and are provocative of 
the greatest interest when asked. The interest is great 
because the one who answers the question feels that he is 
giving something of value which he possesses to one who 
is interested but does not possess it. This is the motive for 
all language as seen above in Chapter XV. 

Pupils may ask questions. Unfortunately they do not ask 
as many questions as they should. Not for the reason that 
they understand everything, but because they do not recog- 
nize the difficulties. This failure to recognize difficulties 
is due partly to a lack of interest which keeps them from 
going into the subject as fully as they might if interested, 
and partly to the fact that most of the things learned in 
school are not carried over into practice. In illustration of 
this latter point any teacher can call to mind cases in which 
pupils have said, "Oh, yes, I understand that perfectly," 
then upon applying the principle find that they did not 
understand it at all. A pupil recognizes a difficulty when he 
cannot understand, verify, or apply a fact or method, and if 
he cannot work it out for himself he will ask questions. 
Manual training, cooking, art, and all subjects capable of 
concrete application are especially provocative of questions 
when interest is present. Other subjects are equally so if 
they are studied as means of solving the learner's problems. 

The teacher should, also, ask informational questions. 
This does not mean that a teacher should not "know his 
subject." For every teacher can know the principles of his 
subject and yet not know all the details. Expert chemists 
have been known to search among primitive peoples for new 
methods of dyeing. Expert naturalists can gain much in- 
formation from woodsmen about the lives of forest animals. 
The expert historian cannot remember or know all the 



298 METHODS OF TEACHING 

facts of his field and accepts them from others. Many boys 
and girls can give the teacher information about various 
things which the teacher, though adequately trained, has 
never known. 

Many teachers fail to ask these questions, partly because 
some teachers are not alert and curious and do not wish to 
know, and partly because they are unwilling to let the pupils 
feel that they can tell them anything new. Teachers of the 
latter class may hesitate because they think it will under- 
mine their authority. But this is wrong. If a teacher knows 
the fundamentals of his subject, is a master of them, he will 
greatly enhance both his authority and the esteem with 
which he is regarded by allowing and encouraging pupils 
to bring in what they know. 

There is probably nothing more inspiring to pupils than 
to feel that they can make an original contribution. If 
Johnnie can utilize in class a knowledge of history gained by 
private reading he will be joyous in his work. If Mary can 
show a fancy stitch, can relate a pertinent personal experi- 
ence, she will feel that school is by so much a finer and 
more interesting place. 

Sometimes the alert teacher can bring this effect about 
by laying stress upon personal opinion. In a history lesson 
a question may be asked, "What is the explanation of the 
Pilgrim Fathers' selecting Plymouth as a landing place?" 
The teacher knows the answer. But if the question were 
asked thus, "What do you think is the reason for the Pil- 
grim Fathers' selecting Plymouth as a landing place?" it 
becomes informational, if there is any possibility of differ- 
ence of opinion, for the pupil is asked to give his explana- 
tion, which may easily be original. 

This stressing of individual opinion is very valuable wher- 
ever there is any possibility of difference of opinion, and the 



QUESTIONING 299 

teacher may gather much information, even from young pu- 
pils, that he has not known before. It is valuable to repeat 
because the one who answers the question has the motive of 
all language; viz., to give his interpretation of a fact — 
information which no one else has, since no one knows what 
he thinks. It is so important that teachers should cultivate 
it and utilize it whenever possible. 

In conclusion, to reiterate, this type of question can be 
used with greater freedom than teachers show in its use. 
There are certain things that a teacher is supposed to know 
about a subject and he should know more about them than 
his pupils know. But there are myriads of things of great 
interest to pupils which he need not know and which he can 
gain from his pupils, not only without a diminution of re- 
spect, but with an increase of both admiration and affection. 

Test Questions. — By test questions is meant questions 
which are asked to show whether the pupils have or have not 
a satisfactory hold upon subject-matter. 

It is, of course, not always necessary to ask questions to 
find this out. Solutions to problems in arithmetic, when 
glanced over, indicate usually the hold the pupils have upon 
principles. Articles made in handwork and drawing, edi- 
bles cooked in domestic art, indicate the efficiency of the stu- 
dent usually without questions. In all concrete material 
there is less necessity for test questions. The test is made 
by the teacher by inspecting the finished product. 

In subjects more isolated from concrete application such 
as history, literature, civics, physiology, etc., it is not easy to 
test in all cases without questions. But in those cases the 
fewer questions asked the better, if they are of the right 
sort. This means that the questions should be topical, and 
require an extended reply or report. This will obviate the 
piecemeal recitation (in which the teacher asks a whole series 



300 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



of petty questions) that calls for no organization by the 
pupils. 

In all subjects whether capable of concrete tangible appli- 
cation or not, questions are necessary sometimes to test 
points that are not obvious in the finished product. A stu- 
dent's knowledge of grammar should in the last analysis be 
tested by his ability to use grammatical English, but some- 
times it becomes necessary to go behind the correctly used 
form to find out why the pupil uses the form, and this is 
done by a question. Sometimes a well-made cake will not 
show which method the pupil has used. This will be dis- 
covered by questions. 

Test questions are usually of two sorts. They may em- 
phasize either memory or thought. Tests of memory call for 
a reproduction of something learned before. Asking pupils 
to repeat a definition, a multiplication table, a selection of 
poetry, dates and rules are all of this sort. Tests of thought 
may be used on the same material. The pupil, instead of 
being asked to define a grammatical term, may be asked to 
parse a word whose class is defined in the definition ; in- 
stead of repeating a multiplication table, he may be given a 
problem in multiplication ; instead of being given a rule, he 
may be given a question in which the rule is to be applied. 

There is a place for both sorts of tests. Teachers are, 
however, more likely to use the first than the second, either 
because they do not think about testing thought or because 
they do not want the extra trouble involved. 

Developing Questions. — By this term is meant ques- 
tions which are asked for the sake of directing pupils in 
their thinking. Their purpose, as distinguished from that of 
testing a question, is that they are understood by both 
teacher and pupil to be in the nature of a hint or suggestion. 

Sometimes the pupil needs help in a solution. The teacher 



QUESTIONING 301 

may ask, "Have you all the data you ought to have ?" This 
question directs him to the reconsideration of his data and 
may be just what he needs. Again he may have reached a 
point where he cannot see the hypothesis. The teacher may 
say, "Will this do ?" Or he may have overlooked a point in 
verification and the teacher may say, "Is this right?" and 
set him to work again. 

In the following quotation a series of developmental ques- 
tions are asked. The pupils are to form a definition (gen- 
eralization) of number in nouns. 

Introduction 
Briefly review the Noun. 

Development 

i. Let several pupils give statements about objects and 
write on the blackboard such as are useful. 

1. The window is easily broken. 

2. Books are on the desks. 

3. Pencils lie on the table. 

4. A ruler is useful for measuring. 

5. A boy enjoys football. 

6. Girls play the piano. 

2. Name the nouns used in these statements. 
Answer. Books, desks, pencils, table, ruler, etc. 

3. How many objects are referred to by the word 
zvindozvf 

Answer. One object. 

To how many objects does the word books refer? 
Answer. To more than one. 

Name all those nouns in above sentences used to indicate 
one object. 

Name all those nouns meaning more than one thing. 



3 o2 METHODS OF TEACHING 

The teacher writes these in two columns as follows : 

One thing More than one tiling 

table, pencils, 

window, etc. girls, etc. 

4. Suppose we wish to speak of more than one window, 
what word should we use? 

Answer. Windows. 

Deal similarly with the other nouns in the columns, hav- 
ing pupils use the nouns in each case in a sentence. The 
opposite columns are now filled out, each noun represent- 
ing one thing having in the opposite column its other form 
representing more than one. 

5. Compare the forms of the nouns in first column with 
those in second column. The slight difference in form will 
be noted by the class. Why are these forms different? 

Answer. To denote one or more than one of the things 
for which the noun stands. 

Technical Term 

The pupils are now told that this change in the form 
of the noun to denote one or more than one object is called 
number. 

Definition 

The pupils will be required to frame a simple definition of 
number which will be written on the blackboard and the 
class drilled on it. 

I have found that better results come in my own teaching 
from changing the order of procedure and saying alter 
the problem has been raised, "This is the case of another 
noun inflection called number. In these sentences on th? 
board some nouns have one number, some another. Can 
you pick out the two classes?" 



QUESTIONING 303 

On one occasion after allowing them to think for a while 
several of the children picked out the words in each class. 

I asked, "How many things do these nouns in the first 
class speak of?" 

Answer. "One." 

"How many the second class?" 

"More than one." 

I then said, "nouns of the first class are said to have singu- 
lar number; of the second, plural number. Try them out 
in other sentences. What is a good definition of number?" 

This took about three minutes, when I had planned for 
ten minutes in development. More developing questions 
were not necessary. 

On another occasion my question, "Can you pick out the 
classes?" did not bring the answer. I thought possibly the 
trouble was that they did not remember the nouns as well as 
I thought they would. So I asked them to pick out the 
nouns which I underlined. "Do you not see any difference 
in the number of things that each noun stands for?" I then 
asked. 

The answer was forthcoming and we proceeded as before. 

If this had not brought the answer I should probably have 
drawn a circle around each singular noun and then have 
asked them if they saw any difference between the number 
of things specified in each member of each group. 

I would begin with the statement that we were going to 
discover the two classes of number of nouns, because I think 
it is better to let the pupils see the trend of the questions in- 
stead of developing step by step. It is better because, if the 
teacher goes by easy steps, each of which the pupil can take, 
only the teacher is conscious of possible difficulties. If we 
set our objective before the pupils they will be the ones to 
realize their difficulties and do some strong thinking. More- 



304 METHODS OF TEACHING 

over, we save time because pupils grasp things more easily 
than we think. We are much inclined to overdevelop and 
subdivide questions to the point where the pupils do not 
have to do sturdy thinking. 

When a pupil needs assistance it is usually better to give it 
in the form of a question than by a direct statement. When 
he has missed some data it is better to say, "Have you all 
your data?" than to remark, "You have left some data out." 
If his solution is wrong it is better to^say, "Is this right?" 
than, "This is wrong." This is true because it throws the 
effort of thought upon him and he can often by thinking 
again reach your knowledge. But if you had stated your 
knowledge he would have missed the pleasure and exercise 
of reaching it for himself. 

In conclusion, it may be said that few questions are true 
to any one type. They are sometimes developmental and 
test questions at the same time, or are informational and test 
at one time. The point of importance is that they serve the 
three functions and that the informational questions are not 
utilized sufficiently, the developing questions are not used 
with sufficient intelligence and comprehension, and that test 
questions should emphasize thought rather than memory. 

Section 2. Structure of Questions 
Good questions possess three characteristics, all due to the 
fact that they are language and must obey its laws. These 
characteristics are: 

(1) They must contain no irrelevant material. 

(2) They must contain all relevant material. 

(3) They must be understood by the pupils. 
Conciseness. — The questioner desires information upon 

a specific problem. It is supposed that he knows exactly 
what his problem is. Therefore, good language usage de- 



QUESTIONING 305 

mands, for one thing, that he have nothing in his question 
which does not belong there — that is, nothing irrelevant. 
Errors in conciseness usually have one cause : the teacher 
does not think exactly and does not know exactly what he 
wants. A common form of question is, What about the 
treaty of Versailles? What about soils? The only possible 
source for determining what the answer to such a question 
should be. is the text, for the answer is supposed to be 
what the text says. 

A few examples are the following: What do I want you 
to do, class? What does this time remind you of? Alex- 
ander was the prince of Macedonia, was he not? The Per- 
sian fleet did not compare favorably with the Greek, did it? 

It was a lack of something, of ??? Chivalry centered 

not only around Edward but his son , the ? 

Irrelevant Matter. — When a questioner does not know 
exactly what he wants, he may add much to a question 
that would not be necessary if he did know what he wanted. 
This failure to know the point in a situation exactly works 
against both conciseness and definiteness. It is difficult to 
make a question definite if the questioner's state of mind 
is not definite. It is only by chance that he can make his 
statement concise since he is likely to add material that does 
not belong to the question. 

Section 3. Standards for Questions 
Standards of judging the efficiency of questions are in 
general the same ; viz., they must be concise, definite, com- 
plete, and clear. But these standards require supplementing 
when applied to the second and third types. 

Testing Questions. — In addition to being concise, def- 
inite, complete, and clear, testing questions should be as 
largely topical as possible. If they are to test they should 



306 METHODS OF TEACHING 

test the ability of the pupil to organize with a good per- 
spective rather than his ability to recollect isolated details. 
These topical questions should, if necessary, be supplemented 
by detail questions. Testing questions should be logically 
arranged, since a systematic knowledge of the topic is being 
tested. 

Certain sorts of objectionable questions need to be avoided 
in testing and developing though not in gathering informa- 
tion. For instance, leading questions as, "Robinson Crusoe 
was lost, was he not?" should be avoided. Or alternate ques- 
tions, "Was Columbus a Spaniard or an Italian?" Better 
in the first case to say, "Was Robinson lost?" and in the 
second, "What was the nationality of Columbus?" Gen- 
erally speaking, questions that can be answered by yes or no 
should be avoided, though frequently it involves much to 
say one or the other. 

The foregoing classes of questions are objectionable be- 
cause they give too much assistance if one really wishes to 
test. They are usually easier than is necessary and by 
slightly rewording them, as above, the teacher can get fuller 
information upon the knowledge of the pupils. 

Teachers who know children can bear me out in saying 
that children who do not care for upholding their own opin- 
ions will watch the teacher for a cue as to the right sort of 
answer. They watch the inflection of the teacher, his ex- 
pression, how he uses his hands, any little mannerism that 
will throw light on what the teacher expects. Hence, a 
teacher should watch himself to see that his questions are 
free from inflectional bias. He should change his signals 
once in a while. It is amusing to the teacher and salutary 
to such a pupil to lead him on occasionally to make answers 
which, to the class, are obviously absurd. A few such les- 
sons often cure a superficial, lazy boy. 



QUESTIONING 307 

Developing Questions. — As a general thing developing 
questions should suggest as little as is economical of the 
pupils' time and effort. Developing questions reveal, sug- 
gest, a possible plan of procedure, call attention to an error 
or give the pupil an idea. They should not make this too 
easy, should not "give the whole thing away." On the 
other hand, they should not leave him to flounder beyond 
the point of greatest efficiency. Illustrations of these may 
be found scattered throughout the text. 

Section 4. The Socratic Method 
The Socratic Method has received a good deal of atten- 
tion and commendation from educators. As a means of 
getting an opponent into a flat contradiction Socrates was 
an adept, as is shown in the following free translation of a 
conversation between' Socrates and one of his pupils, given 
by Baldwin as an example of the Socratic method •} 

Meno — Socrates, we come to you feeling strong and 
wise ; we leave you feeling helpless and ignorant. Why is 
this? 

Socrates — I will show you. 

[Calling a young Greek, and making a line in the sand, 
he proceeded :] 

Boy, how long is this line? 
Boy — It is a foot long, sir. 
Socrates — How long is this line? 
Boy — It is two feet long, sir. 

Socrates — How much larger would be the square con- 
structed on the second line than on the first line ? 
Boy — It would be twice as large, sir. 
[Under the direction of the boy, Socrates constructs 
two squares.] 
1 Baldwin, School Management, p. 318. 



3<d8 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Socrates — How much larger than the first did you say 
the second square would be? 

Boy — I said it would be twice as large. 

Socrates — But how much larger is it ? 

Boy — It is four times as large. 

Socrates — Thank you, my boy; you may go. 

Meno, that boy came to me full of confidence, thinking 
himself wise. I told him nothing. By a few simple ques- 
tions I led him to see his error and discover the truth. 
Though really wiser, he goes away feeling humbled. 

This is a good, crisp recitation. The questions are well 
arranged, produce a maximum of thought, and cover the 
ground in an artistic manner. 

But, it is only a paraphrase of the original, and this orig- 
inal which follows shows that practically every question was 
asked in such a way that it suggested the answer and 
could be answered by yes or no. For instance: 

Meno — Yes, Socrates ; but what do you mean by saying 
that we do not learn, and that what we call learning is 
only a process of recollection? Can you teach me how 
this is? 

Socrates — I told you, Meno, just now that you were a 
rogue, and now you ask whether I can teach you, when I 
am saying that there is no teaching, but only recollection ; 
and thus you imagine that you will involve me in a con- 
tradiction. 

Meno — Indeed, Socrates, I protest that I had no such 
intention. I only asked the question from habit; but if 
you can prove to me that what you say is true, I wish that 
you would. 

Socrates — It will be no easy matter, but I will try to 
please you to the utmost of my power. Suppose that you 



QUESTIONING 



309 



call one of your numerous attendants, that I may dem- 
onstrate on him. 

Meno — Certainly. Come hither, boy. 
Socrates — He is Greek, and speaks Greek, does he 
not? 

Meno — Yes, indeed ; he was born in the house. 

Socrates — Attend now to the questions which I ask 
him, and observe whether he learns of me or only re- 
members. 

Meno — I will. 

Socrates — Tell me, boy, do you know that a figure like 
this is square? 

Boy — I do. 

Socrates — And do you know that a square figure has 
these four lines equal? 

Boy — Certainly. 

Socrates — And these lines which I have drawn through 
the middle of the square are also equal? 

Boy — Yes. 

Socrates — A square may be of any size? 

Boy — Certainly. 

Socrates — And if one side of the figure be of two 
feet, and the other side be of two feet, how much will the 
whole be ? Let me explain : If in one direction the space 
was of two feet, and in the other direction of one foot, 
the whole would be of two feet taken once? 

Boy — Yes. 

Socrates — But since this is also of two feet, there are 
twice two feet? 

Boy — Yes. 

Socrates — How many are twice two feet? Count and 
tell me. 

Boy — Four, Socrates. 



3io 



MKTIIODb OF TEACHING 



Socrates — And might there not be another square 
twice as large as this, and having like this the lines equal? 

Boy — Yes. 

SOCRATES — And of how many feet will that be? 

Boy— Of eight feet. 

Socrates — And now try and tell me the length of the 
line which forms the side of that double square : this is 
two feet — what will that be? 

Boy — Clearly, Socrates, it will be double. 

Socrates — Do you observe, Meno, that I am not teach- 
ing the boy anything, but only asking him questions ; and 
now he fancies that he knows how long a line is necessary 
in order to produce a figure of eight square feet ; does 
he not? 

Socrates' objective was good. He stimulated thought by 
causing self-contradiction, but his individual questions were 
not thought provocative. Plato frequently uses his mas- 
ter's audience as a foil to glorify the intelligence of the 
master. And in doing this he has the audience often follow- 
ing blindly and making admissions that a person of ordinary 
alertness would hesitate over and perhaps refuse to make. 

Taking each question by itself, Socrates did not use good 
developing questions. If the reader will observe in the 
portion quoted above, the auditors simply followed Socrates 
along, agreeing at every step and often agreeing to de- 
batable statements. This is one of the dangers of the 
developing method. It may make the learner dependent. 
Pupils cannot always have the teacher present to blaze 
the trail. 

Section 5. Answers 

Answers to questions should obey the ordinary laws of 
language. They should be concise, definite and clear. They 



QUESTIONING 311 

should be complete in the sense that nothing should be left 
out. Further elaboration is not necessary. 

One query is raised, Should teachers insist upon answers 
being always given as complete sentences? For instance, 
What is the longest river in the United States? In answer 
to this, will the reply "The Mississippi river" do? Or should 
the pupils be expected to answer, "The Mississippi river is 
the longest in the United States?" 

Personally, although opposed by every text on questioning 
that mentions the matter, the writer believes that the only 
excuse for requiring a complete statement is the failure of 
a short, crisp answer to carry the idea. Too many classes 
are ruined by this attempt to be formal. In rapid fire con- 
versation everywhere, it is pure pedantry and a slowing up 
of interest to use always the complete statement. Nobody 
insists upon complete statements but teachers, and they do 
not use them themselves outside of school, and usually not in 
school. Occasionally a complete sentence is necessary but 
insistence upon it makes the class work drag and die. 

Section 6. Class Questions and Answers 
A few simple rules of class management are so obvious 
that a mere mention of them is sufficient. These rules are 
important in classes but would not be in individual in- 
struction. 

Questions. — It is generally stated that questions should 
not be asked in rotation because any idle boy, when he has 
answered his question, can loiter till the next question comes 
to him. It is similarly wise to ask the question first and 
name the pupil to answer it afterward. Better say, "What 
is the best method, John?" than, "John, what is the best 
method ?" The reason is that in the first question everybody 
feels that he has a chance, or may be called upon, and will 



312 METHODS OF TEACHING 

therefore think. In the second, it is John's lookout. He 
has the chance and the working tone of the class deteriorates 
temporarily. 

Answers. — Class answers should not be simultaneous. 
The reasons are obvious. If it is a testing question it is im- 
possible to get a good idea of what each pupil knows. If it 
is a developing question the bright pupil takes the lead. If 
it is an informational question the teacher in the babel of 
voices finds out nothing. Occasionally in drill work con- 
certed answers are allowable, but otherwise seldom, if ever. 

Teachers should not get into the habit of repeating 
answers. It slows the lesson. If the pupils do not hear the 
answer let the answerer speak louder. 

References for Class Reading 

Baldwin, School Management, Part AT, Chaps. Ill and 
VI. 

Betts, The Recitation, pp. 55-78. 

Keith, Elementary Education, pp. 152-63. 

Raub, School Management, pp. 122-30. 

Stevens, The Question, pp. 72-86. 

Strayer, A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, pp. 
114-121. 

Exercises 

1. How will group work assist in having informational 
questions asked by the pupils? 

2. Note in all your classes for two days what informa- 
tional questions were asked by your instructors. 

3. Why are topical questions better than minute ques- 
tions ? 

4. Give examples of test questions that are of the thought 
type which might be asked on this chapter. 



QUESTIONING 313 

5. Give five examples of where teachers have led pupils 
to rescrutinize their work by asking questions. 

6. Give the cleverest example of a group of developing 
questions of which you know. 

7. Add to the examples in the text your own favorite 
stories and examples of questions that were not concise, def- 
inite, or above the heads of the pupils. 

8. Is the criticism of Socrates a fair one? Why? 



CHAPTER XIX 

INDUCTION 

Section i. Origin of the Inductive Method 

From time immemorial it has been a habit of teachers and 
parents to state facts on mere authority. The early psychol- 
ogy of childhood overemphasized the memoriter ability of 
children and underestimated their reasoning powers. Hence, 
the method of teaching grammar was to "give" the rules and 
let pupils memorize them and understand them as well as 
they could. 

Kirkham (1837) deals with the parts of speech in th^ 
way as the following quotation will illustrate. 

LECTURE VIII — OF PRONOUNS 

A Pronoun is a word' used instead of a noun and generallv 
to avoid too frequent repetition of the same word. A pro 
noun is likewise sometimes a substitute for a sentence, 01 
member of a sentence. 1 

Then follows some explanation of the definition. The 
pupils read this and the teachers elucidated the explanation. 

The Herbartian Contribution. — But this memoritei 
method of learning rules on authority had its keen-eyed 
critics who observed the weakness of such a system, and 
many attempts were made to correct the troubles. To the 
Herbartians belong the credit for putting the remedies upon 
a practical basis. Their Indue tire Method has done more 

1 Samuel Kirkham, English Grammar, 1837, p. 95. 

314 



INDUCTION 



315 



than any other single agency to give the pupil a chance to 
be more than a memorizing machine. 

The essence of their claim is that pupils may, if given 
proper conditions, discover some rules for themselves. They 
do not need to take them on authority. Children can reason 
as well as remember. It is pointed out that all generaliza- 
tions have arisen by observation of individual cases. Such 
a proverb as "Honesty is the best policy" is based on the 
observation of many cases. The theory of evolution is the 
outcome of an examination of many thousands of cases. 

Pupils who live in a society which has these rules and 
principles already formed get many of them on authority 
and discover many for themselves. But the inductive 
method endeavors to minimize the former and to strengthen 
tendencies toward the latter by training pupils to do their 
own discovering for themselves. 

It is recognized, of course, that some generalizations are 
too difficult to be made by pupils, and these have to be told 
them directly. But others are not so difficult and may be 
made by the pupils. Then, again, some are important and 
others are not. In all these cases a rule may be laid down 
that difficult and relatively unimportant rules should be told ; 
easy and important rules should be developed ; difficult and 
important rules or easy and unimportant rules may or may 
not be developed, as the teacher feels will be wisest. 

The Herbartians made a mistake in that they overempha- 
sized the inductive method by making its application too 
general. "One leading aim of instruction in every impor- 
tant subject is the mastery, in the full sense, of its general 
truths," says McMurry. 1 This is a moderate statement, but 
for several years the practical working of the Five Formal 
Steps demanded the forming of a generalization in every 

1 The Method of the Recitation, p. 12. 



316 METHODS OF TEACHING 

unit of subject-matter. As time went on it became obvious 
that not every lesson has a generalization as its aim, and 
so the inductive method has now begun to take its proper 
place and is proving itself to be a valuable method in that 
place. That is, the inductive method is of great value in 
those lessons in which general truths or rules are to be 
formulated. 

Secton 2. Definition and Analysis of Induction 
Definition. — Before showing how the inductive method 
works in teaching it is advisable to discuss the nature of 
induction. For it is not a new method. It has been in use 
in the sciences as a definite method since the time of its 
enunciation by Francis Bacon in the seventeenth century. 
In teaching, it has been utilized for only a century since its 
enunciation by Herbart in the early nineteenth century and 
in America for only a few years since its introduction by 
the McMurrys, De Garmo and other disciples of Herbart in 
the latter part of the nineteenth century. 

Creighton describes induction as follows i 1 "In induction 
. . . the starting point must be the particular facts, and 
the task which thought has to perform is to discover the gen- 
eral law of their connection." 

Function of Induction. — Throughout the text we have 
laid stress upon the fact that pupils are always striving to 
control values. In this effort induction plays a very impor- 
tant role. For, obviously, if we can classify values so that 
the same method of control may be used for any member of 
a class of values, we will save time and effort. The dray 
man forms the generalizations : books are heavy, bedding is 
light. This saves him many a wrench of the back ; for when 
he lifts a particular box of books or bundle of bedding, he 

1 An Introductory Logic, pp. 173-4. 



INDUCTION 



3*7 



can set his muscles expertly so as to lift them with the 
greatest amount of ease. If a summer resort visitor knows 
that the sun burns her face, she can always protect herself 
in each individual case. "Beware the Greek bearing gifts" 
is a proverb that in ancient days helped to protect life and 
property. The rule "Poisons Kill" helps one as soon as he 
handles anything poisonous. 

The function of induction, then, is to simplify the control 
of values by arranging appropriate objects in classes and 
by finding out a single method of control that will handle 
each member of the class concerned. 

This must be remembered if induction is to have its due, 
that we do not make rules and generalizations just for the 
sake of having them, but because we wish to apply them in 
handling the concrete situations of life. Just to know that 
all men are mortal amounts to little unless it influences our 
actions by making us build with the expectation of death 
arriving some day, or by assuaging our sorrow when some 
one dies. Rules of grammar are of little use unless they 
help us to place the particular to which the rule applies. 
Arithmetic rules are valueless unless they are applied to par- 
ticular cases. In other words, we make generalizations only 
in order that we can handle particulars easily, and efficiently. 

Essentials of Induction. — Induction consists of four 
elements. These are the observation of particulars, their 
comparison, and the formation of a generalization and veri- 
fication. In teaching the definition of a noun (a generaliza- 
tion) a dozen cases of the use of the noun can be studied, 
say in sentences, as : 

The old man hurt his foot. 

John Smith is brown-eyed. 
Chicago is a large city, etc. 

The words man, foot, John Smith, Chicago, city, may be 



3 i8 METHODS OF TEACHING 

studied, then compared, and from these a rule can be formed 
— that each is the name of a person, place or thing. If the 
particular cases are not first presented, and if the pupils do 
not compare them, then it is not induction. The teacher 
merely "gives" the rule. 

Examples. — Frequently pupils form inductions for them- 
selves as in the following case cited by Adams i 1 ''A person 
who knew no German was called upon to make a vocabu- 
lary that included over two thousand German nouns. She 
had to indicate in each case the gender, the genitive, and the 
meaning of the noun. Her method was the straightforward 
one of looking up each word in a standard German dic- 
tionary, and copying out the relevant details. As the work 
progressed, she found that she could anticipate with increas- 
ing accuracy the gender and genitive of each new noun as it 
presented itself; till, towards the end, she was strongly 
tempted to depend . upon her general impression, without 
troubling to verify it by reference to the dictionary." 

This shows that unconsciously the pupil gained a mechan- 
ical hold upon the gender and genitive form of the nouns. 
Nor is this by any means uncommon. 

Another case cited by Adams in the same connection illus- 
trates this same fact further in a very interesting way. 

"A still more striking case is one that occurred under the 
deplorably bad system of payment by results, that used to 
obtain in England, in which the teacher's professional repu- 
tation depended upon the percentage of pupils he could con- 
trive to. squeeze through certain individual examination tests 
at the end of each school year. A harassed teacher, who 
had not enough time to attend to the dullards that under 
this system were the persons of chief importance, tried to 
get rid of the troublesome clever pupils in her youngest 

1 Exposition and Illustration in Teaching, p. 28. 



INDUCTION 



319 



class by keeping them busy with long addition sums, while 
she devoted all her energy to getting her dullards to work 
little sums with sufficient accuracy to obtain the coveted 
pass. Through much practice the clever pupils were able 
to work the long sums so rapidly that they were continually 
worrying the poor teacher by coming back for more. To 
save time in giving out fresh sums, she dictated only one 
line, say 987,526, and told the pupils to repeat that line on 
their slates another eight times, making nine lines in all, and 
then add the whole. The remarkable thing was that after 
some weeks of this ingenious labor-saving device the poor 
teacher was more harassed than ever. The children appeared 
to have acquired a positively uncanny speed in addition. On 
investigation it was found that the pupils had gradually 
noticed that there was something peculiarly symmetrical 
about the new sums the teacher was giving them. Some of 
the more intelligent among them began to see that it was a 
pity to waste time adding up a column of nine eights when 
they had added up such a column a little while ago. They 
began, therefore, to keep a note of results for future use, 
and gradually gave up adding at all, except in the matter of 
carrying from one column to another. The step from this 
to pure multiplication was easy, but as a matter of fact 
was not made by the pupils themselves ; the secret of multi- 
plication was communicated to them (for a consideration) by 
certain pupils in higher classes to whom the young experi- 
menters had been talking about the peculiar sums they had 
lately been having. The net result was that those pupils 
learnt in a few weeks, and with great satisfaction, the full 
meaning of the multiplication table and its application, mat- 
ters that under ordinary circumstances take a whole school 
year to master." 

Generalizations. — The term generalization is rather un- 



320 METHODS OF TEACHING 

usual in common speech. But its synonyms are well known. 
( )ne of these is rule, since a rule can be applied in many 
cases. Laws are customary ways of acting. Many cases 
are observed to act uniformly, hence, law. Definitions apply 
to a whole group. Principles are generalizations and prov- 
erbs are general truths — more usually half-truths. 

Section 3. Induction Special Form of Problem 

Control of Values. — Tn chapter 12 we discussed the 
methods of control of values and particularly control when 
a problem was present. . We found at that time that in 
reaching a solution of a problem we collect data, make hy- 
potheses, and verify hypotheses when made. 

Now, in induction we have a special case of this process. 
In other words, the problem is that of finding a general 
truth. There are plenty of other sorts of problems. For 
example, the problem may be to apply a general truth. But 
in all cases except where we wish to form rules, principles, 
or definitions we do not use the inductive method. 

Problem. — If we describe induction in this other ter- 
minology we may say first, that in induction our problem 
is to form a generalization. We reach a point where we 
feel that we ought to have some rule, a definition, or a prin 
ciple by which to go. 

Data. — Our data are our particular cases, and all thf 
other things we know. But essentially we must have par- 
ticular cases, plenty of them, so that we may observe and 
compare them. In the case of the girl with the German 
nouns just cited the data were the different nouns which 
were handled one by one. In the case of the bright pupils 
the data were groups of 9 digits exactly alike. To these 
they added their past experience. 

Hypothesis. — The hypothesis is the guess at a generali- 



INDUCTION 



321 



zation. After we have studied a few cases it is natural 
for the mind to jump to a generalization. Sometimes we 
do this when we examine the first case. Sometimes the 
guess is right and frequently it is wrong. 

Rules for Forming Hypothesis in Induction. — Logi- 
cians have worked out several rules of procedure in forming 
hypotheses. These have only a slight application to the 
rough and tumble work of pupils in the grades or in the 
high school, but they are of some use to teachers and are 
mentioned here simply that those students who desire to do 
so may examine them. For a discussion see Creighton's 
Logic and De Garmo's Principles of Secondary Instruction, 
page references in which are given at the end of this 
chapter. 

Solution. — The solution is the correct generalization 
that is finally accepted. 

Verification. — The proof comes with the application of 
the rules and definitions to particular cases. 

Section 4. The Herbartian Five Formal Steps 

The Herbartians apply the inductive method to teaching 
in what is known as the Five Formal Steps. These are : 
Preparation Presentation Comparison 

Generalization Application 

The Preparation step reviews necessary past experience 
and states the aim (the formation of a generalization). 

The Presentation step studies the particular cases. 

The Comparison step compares these particulars. 

The Generalization step draws a generalization. 

The Application step applies the generalization. 

It will be observed that the first and last steps are added 
to the inductive process, and that the second, which deals 
with particulars, the third which compares them, and the 



>: 22 METHODS OF TEACHING 

fourth which generalizes, are the steps that deal with 
induction. 

I shall proceed in this discussion by giving examples of 
the use of the method as worked out by F. M. and C. A. 
McMurry, and will then make one or two suggestions about 
points at which the method might be improved. 

Preparation. — The Herbartians say that the first step 
in learning a generalization is the preparation of the pupils' 
minds for the new truth. The preparation consists in the 
review or calling up of past experience that will be of use 
to the pupils in learning the new. Because the child learns 
new things only in terms of the old, as the doctrine of apper- 
ception teaches us. "During this step as many related ideas 
as possible should be called up by the teacher, especially 
those which are closely welded to the personality of the 
child. No advance work should be attempted during this 
preparatory step." The whole idea is to call into conscious- 
ness what the children already know about the subject to 
be attacked^ 

In addition to this, the aim of the lesson, the point to be 
learned, should be stated in concrete, definite, simple, short 
and attractive words. 

We can do no better in making this clear than by quoting 
one or two lessons cited by McMurry. 

In a lesson on the Parable of the Tares he says: 1 "The 
majority of the questions following, although not all, could 
be given to ten-year-old children. 

"Aim. — Let us see what Christ meant by his story about 
removing weeds from the wheat. 

"Have you found weeds in a garden of your own ? How 
are they gotten rid of? Why is that so necessary? Is 
there any danger to the other plants in so doing ? Have you 

1 The Method of the Recitation, pp. 283-4. 



INDUCTION 323 

seen weeds growing in grain in the country? Where? In 
what grains ? Is it more or less dangerous to remove weeds 
from wheat than from your flowers or vegetables in the 
garden? Why? What, then, does the farmer do with 
them?" 

In a lesson on The Irrigation of Arid Lands he proceeds 
as follows i 1 

"First Step. — How can the dry lands of some of our far 
western states be watered from the rivers? 

How are our farms and gardens in Illinois supplied with 
moisture? Do you know of any of our states where there 
is little or no rainfall on the plains? Point out on the map 
the dry region along the eastern base of the Rocky Moun- 
tains. What do you know from your geographies of the 
climate of this strip of country? What business may be 
carried on here ? Grazing and mining. Have you heard of 
people who crossed the "plains"? Where are the plains? 
Recall Fremont's trip to the Rocky Mountains. Can crops 
of grain or vegetables be raised on the plains? What are 
the difficulties? What rivers flow across this region, and 
in which direction? Would it be possible to get the water 
from these rivers upon the dry uplands, so as to use them 
for purposes of agriculture ? Tell what you may have heard 
of irrigating ditches." 

It will be observed in both these cases that the aim is 
stated clearly and that upon most of the points to arise, 
related information has been called up. 

Presentation. — In this step the particular cases are 
studied by the pupils. If we are hunting for a definition of 
noun, many sentences containing nouns are studied and the 
particulars in each discussed to see what each one does. 

If a rule in algebra is being developed, the particular cases 

1 Op. cit., pp. 257-8. 



324 METHODS OF TEACHING 

are examined. For instance, the pupils may be hunting for 
a rule for the expansion of a square. They may work out 
by multiplication the following : 

(a+'b) 2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 

(c + d) 2 = c 2 + 2cd + d 2 
(x + y) 2 = x 2 + 2xy + y 2 
(m + n) 2 = m 2 -f- 211111 + n 2 

These may be worked out by ordinary multiplication, tabu- 
lated, and made ready for comparison. 

In the illustration from McMurry 1 on Irrigated Lands 
four different irrigated sections are studied. The first on 
the South Fork of the Platte near Denver, with great ful- 
ness, the others the Arkansas, at Canon City, the Rio 
Grande, and the North Fork of the Platte, with less care. 
The lesson on the Tares mentioned above proceeds as 
follows : 

"a. Now let us listen to the story that Christ told about 
removing weeds from the wheat. That was in Palestine, 
and the particular weeds he mentioned are called tares. 
They are said to look very much like wheat. (Read Mat- 
thew xiii 124-31.) (If time allows, at least a portion of 
this parable could be developed instead of read.) The chil- 
dren, after hearing or reading the parable, relate the same 
probably two or three times, in order to see clearly the con- 
crete situation. Proceeding, we say, "Why, then, were the 
servants not allowed to pull up the tares?" The chief 
answer is that in so doing they would root up the wheat, 
because the tares stand so close to the wheat that one could 
not be pulled up without injury to the other. 

b. Christ's disciples hardly knew what he meant by this 
story, and they asked him about it. Do you think you can 

1 Op. cit., pp. 258 ff, 



INDUCTION 325 

possibly tell what is meant? Let us see. He says that a 
man having a field of grain may be compared with the king- 
dom of Heaven. If so, whom might the sower represent? 
Answer — Christ. And what would the field be? Answer — 
the world. Who would be meant by the good seed ? Who 
by the tares? When will the harvest be? Who are the 
reapers ?" 

Comparison. — In this step, as its name suggests, a 
comparison of the particulars presented and studied in 
the presentation is made. 

In its simplest form the step consists of one question : 
"In what respect are these particulars alike?" If this cannot 
be answered, supplementary questions are necessary. For 
instance, in the rule for squaring, binomials the pupils may 
not see the resemblance. If they do not, other questions 
may need to be asked, such as, What is the first term of 
the binomial ? See where it is found in the expanded form. 
What is the second term? Where is it found in the expan- 
sion? What has happened to the first term all through the 
expansion? What to the second? Now, again, in what 
respects are they alike? 

In the lesson on Irrigation, McMurry 1 proceeds as 
follows : 

"Third Step. — Compare now these four rivers — the 
South Fork of the Platte, the North Fork of the Platte, 
the Arkansas, and the Rio Grande— as related to the moun- 
tains and plains, as situated in reference to the mining cities, 
and as illustrating facts of irrigation as now carried on. 
What is the relative importance of the small streams as 
compared with the large ones for purposes of irrigation?" 

Generalization. — When comparison is efficiently carried 
on the common element is picked out, and this, of course, 

1 Op. cit, p. 268. 



326 METHODS OF TEACHING 

is the generalization. _ In the algebra question the rule, 
square of first plus square of second plus twice product of 
first and second, is the generalization. In the lesson on 
Irrigation, McMurry gives the generalization as follows: 

''Fourth Step. — In summing up the common features 
of these river valleys we may observe that they are all in 
an arid region, that they derive their water supply from 
the mountains ; as they emerge into the plains at the foot 
of the mountains their waters are carried out to enrich the 
plains by means of artificial channels. The smaller tribu- 
tary streams are used in a similar way. The presence of 
important mining cities near these river valleys and in them 
makes a ready market for all the products raised by irriga- 
tion. The present wealth and population of these districts 
depend largely upon the irrigating ditches." 

Application we shall leave for Chapter XXIII. 

Criticism. — As stated before, the preparatory step of the 
Herbartians reviews past experience and states the aim. In 
the lesson on the Tares it seems to me that since the real 
problem of this parable is what to do with wicked people, 
if there is to be any reviewing it should be a review along 
that line. We might better take up with the pupils what should 
be done with very wicked people who were hurting the 
good? Is capital punishment right, etc.? And then go to 
the parable to see what Christ thought about the matter. 

This review for motive is the only one that should be 
given at the beginning of this lesson. If the problem has 
arisen in earlier lessons, even that review would not be 
necessary. Review for aid in solution is discussed in Chap- 
ter XXI. It would be enough to say, "You recollect our 
argument the other day about what to do with wicked people, 
etc., and I promised to show you what Christ said. Here 
it is, etc." 



INDUCTION 327 

The matter which these authors take up in the preparatory 
step might better come later, if needed, when the interpre- 
tation is to be made. 

Then, with the problem set, the pupils should read the 
selection over, and this should be followed by the question, 
"On which side of this argument does this parable of 
Christ's show him to be?" If they answer correctly, they 
should then be asked, "What makes you think so?" And 
here we would have the motive for a careful study of the 
story. If they did not see which side Christ took, again we 
would have a strong motive for studying the story and inter- 
preting it. 

Another example in which the whole inductive develop- 
ment would be changed by raising the problem of the lesson 
at the beginning of the lesson is afforded in Sutherland's 
excellent little book on The Teaching of Geography. An 
illustrative lesson found on pp. 149-153 is quoted: 

"An Illustrative Inductive Lesson 
(Planned for a Seventh Grade) 

Geographical principle to be induced : "The location of 
cities is often caused by breaks in transportation." 

I. PREPARATION 

What is the chief product of our home region? To what 
place is it shipped? How? Southwestern Wisconsin once 
produced much lead. Where was it taken? Why taken to 
Galena? How? What did the people of Galena do with 
the lead? Where is Galena? Show it on the map. On 
what river is it located? Why not located at the mouth 
of La Fevre river? Why not at its source? What deter- 
mined how far up the river Galena should be located ? Then 
what determined the location of Galena? 



328 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



What supplies were needed in the region of Platteville in 
early days? Where did the supplies come from? By what 
route? Trace the route. What was done with the supplies 
when they had been taken as far by boat as possible ? What 
might this transferring point become? 

A few days ago we learned that New York is the richest 
city in America. Where is New York City located? Point 
to it on the map. 

Pupils' Problem No. I. — Let us find out how New York 
City came to be located at the mouth of the Hudson river. 

PRESENTATION 

From what place did the first settlers of New York come? 
How did they come? Were their ships large? Could they 
easily sail up the river? Why not? Who inhabited this 
region when the white men came? How did the Indian 
get his living? Did he have any products which the white 
men might want? What? W r here could the white man sell 
the furs? What could he give the Indian in exchange for 
them? Where were the "trinkets" secured? How could 
the Indians get their furs to the white men? Could the 
white men reach the Indians in the ocean ship? Could the 
Indians reach the ocean ships in their canoes ? Where, then, 
could the white men and Indians best meet to trade? What 
might you call such a point ? What do we find there today ? 
Then what determined the location of New York City? 

A similar study is made of St. Paul and Chicago. 

IV. COMPARISON AND GENERALIZATION 

Let us now compare these three places which we have 
studied, to see if we can find one thing true of all of them. 

In the case of New York, what were the white men forced 
to do with the supplies and trinkets they brought to the 
region for the settlers and the Indians? (Land them.) 



INDUCTION 329 

What did the Indian have to do with his furs? Could he 
carry them farther than the mouth of the Hudson river? 
In this regard, examine both St. Paul and Chicago. What 
do we find true of all? 

At this point the pupils will give a crude general state- 
ment, possibly something like this : 

In each case we see that the white trader brought his 
things as far as he could without unloading, and that the 
Indian brought his furs as near the trader as he could 
without unloading. These points were near together. Be- 
tween them a trading-post was made, and later a town grew. 

The following questions may be asked about the general 
statement in order to throw it into the technical form : 

What might you say, then, occurred in the routes of 
transportation for the white man's goods? The Indian's 
route ? Answer, a break. What do breaks in transportation 
cause? What determined the location of New York City? 
Why has it since become so large? What determined the 
.location of St. Paul? Of Chicago? Why have they become 
large cities? What sometimes determines the location of 
cities ? 

If it is decided (and it is almost mandatory) to carry this 
principle through its deductive phase, the mode of proce- 
dure may be seen in the Deductive Lesson in the next 
chapter." 

Criticism. — Now, if we begin this lesson by saying, 
Why were New York, St. Paul, and Chicago located where 
they are? we could omit all of the first three paragraphs 
of preparation and begin section 1 with the question, Why 
was New York located where it is? The remainder of 
section 1 has been shortened in actual teaching as follows : 
Why did they not go farther up the river to locate it ? Why 
did they locate at the mouth of a river at all? 



330 METHODS OF TEACHING 

A serious difficulty arises as soon as an attempt is made 
to apply the Five Formal Steps to every unit. An excellent 
example of this is found in Cox, Literature in the Common 
Schools, pp. 1 14-126. 

The lesson is Old Ironsides, by Oliver Wendell Holmes, 
which I reproduce here : 

Old Ironsides 

Ay, tear her tattered ensign down ! 

Long has it waved on high, 
And many an eye has danced to see 

That banner in the sky ; 
Beneath it rung the battle shout, 

And burst the cannon's roar; — 
The meteor of the ocean air 

Shall sweep the clouds no more. 

Her deck, once red with heroes' blood, 

Where knelt the vanquished foe, 
When winds were hurrying o'er the flood, 

And waves were white below, 
No more shall feel the victor's tread, 

Or know the conquered knee ; 
The harpies of the shore shall pluck 

The eagle of the sea ! 

Oh, better that her shattered hulk 

Should sink beneath the wave ; 
Her thunders shook the mighty deep, 

And there should be her grave : 
Nail to the mast her holy flag, 

Set every threadbare sail, 
And give her to the god of storms, 

The lightning and the gale ! 



INDUCTION 331 

I shall not quote the preparation and presentation, because 
too long. They are well worked out and excellent in treat- 
ment. Comparison and generalization I shall quote verbatim. 

"Comparison. — The teacher will think of various ex- 
amples in history with which to compare the ideas of this 
poem. This study may be more or less extensive, as the time 
and occasion may require. It offers, too, an excellent oppor- 
tunity for the correlation of history and literature. A com- 
parative study of the Monitor and the Oregon has already 
been suggested. Shortly before the appearance of our poem 
the Admiralty of England determined to cut the Victory, a 
one-hundred-gun ship, down to seventy-four guns. The 
Victory was Lord Nelson's flag-ship at the battle of Trafal- 
gar. When the order was published the people raised such 
an outcry against it that the proposed measure was aban- 
doned. Other studies will suggest themselves to the wide- 
awake teacher. Children, if put upon the right track, 
delight in running down such things. 

Generalization. — This may be stated as the proposition 
that in the life of a nation noble sentiment is a vital force." 

Now, it seems the clearest thing in the world that the 
intrinsic function of the poem was not to show "that in 
the life of the nation noble sentiment is a vital force." The 
author had but one, that an intense purpose in mind, and 
that was to save the ship. The generalization quoted is a 
principle that is sound enough, but it is not to be learned 
from -this poem if any semblance to the purpose of the author 
is to be maintained. 

Illustration from Grammar. — A further illustration may 
be given of the use of induction as applied to grammar. 
For instance, in the study of adjectives we may presuppose 
that the thing of value in grammar is to see how parts of 
speech help us to express our ideas more definitely and easily. 



332 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



Suppose the noun has already been described as a word 
which names a person, place, or thing. 

Preparation. — A review of the noun will be given to 
bring its function into the focus of attention. The children 
may be asked, Why are we studying grammar ? The answer 
will be, To find out all the parts of speech which help us to 
express ourselves more definitely. Then the teacher may 
say, Today we are to study a new part of speech called the 
adjective. I want you to tell me how it helps us in making 
our speech more definite. Here is a sentence with which we 
may begin: I want the pupil to bring me the book. Then, 
turning to the class, he may say, Do this for me. The pupils 
will feel the impossibility of doing as requested. Well, why 
don't you do it? the teacher may ask. The class will, in 
substance, answer thus: We don't know who is to do it, 
nor zvhat book to get. The teacher will add, What must I 
do to this sentence before you can do zvhat I want you to do? 
Answer : Add some more words. The teacher may or may 
not say, Those zvords will be our lesson for today. But, in 
any case, the problem is before them. They see, if they are 
to get his meaning, something needs to be done to make it 
more definite. 

Presentation. — In the presentation step the particulars 
are presented. From these the pupils by comparison are to 
get at the general truth. To that end stress is laid by the 
teacher in the presentation of each particular upon the 
element that will be found later to be common to all. 

In the teaching of the adjective, the lesson may proceed as 
follows : The teacher writes upon the board, 

/ zvant the pupil to bring me the red book. 

Teacher — Can you do it? Ans. — No; there arc several 
red books. Teacher adds smallest. Can you do it now? 



INDUCTION 



333 



Ans. — Yes. An afterthought — But zve don't know who is 
to do it. Teacher adds curly-headed to pupil, then writes, 
blue-eyed, curly-headed pupil, and, finally, tallest, blue-eyed, 
curly-headed pupil, asking after each one, Can you do it 
nozvf We will suppose that as the sentence stands, viz., / 
want the tallest, blue-eyed, curly-headed pupil to bring me 
the smallest, red book, the process of definition has gone 
far enough to indicate the particular child and the particular 
book. The pupil so indicated brings the book. 

Teacher — Why couldn't you do it before? Ans. — Not 
definite enough. Teacher — What zvords gave definitencssf 
Ans. — Tallest, blue-eyed, etc. Teacher — What did they 
make definite? Ans. — The pupil you meant and the book 
you meant. Teacher — Let us make this definite — What 
did "tallest" make more definite? Ans. — "Pupil." Teacher 
— What did "smallest" make more definite? Ans. — "Book," 
etc. 

Teacher — Let us take another illustration. I am thinking 
of a dog. Writes on the board, It is a small dog. Do you 
know of zvhat dog I am thinking? Ans. — A r o. Teacher — 
What is wrong with the sentence? Ans. — Not definite 
enough. Teacher — writes, It is a small, fat dog. Do you 
knozv nozv? Ans. — No. Teacher — writes, It is a small, fat, 
wheezy dog. Do you knozv yet? Ans. — No. Teacher — 
writes, It is a small, fat, zvheezy, one-eyed dog. Do you 
knozv nozv? Johnnie holds up his hand. Teacher — Well, 
Johnnie t Johnnie — The grocer's dog. Teacher — Right. I 
sazv him zvhen I zvas coming to school today. What was 
zvrong with the first statement? Ans. — It zvas not definite 
enough. Teacher — Hozv did I make it definite? etc., as in 
the former example. When enough of these have been 
covered, the next step follows. It will be noted that in this 
no generalization is made. The children only see that 



334 METHODS OF TEACHING 

particular names are made more definite by particular 
words. 

Comparison. — The lesson may proceed as follows: 
Teacher — Name all the words that were added to make the 
meaning definite. Ans. — The children give the list. Teacher 
— What did they make more definite? Ans. — "Pupil," 
"hook," "dog" etc. Teacher — What parts of speech do you 
call the words, "pupil," "hook," "dog," etc.? Ans. — Nouns. 
Teacher — Now, who can tell me what part of speech these 
words make more definite? The next answer should be the 
generalization. The last question stimulates them to com- 
plete the comparison. 

Generalization. — The children's answer in this case is, 
They all make the noun more definite. Then the teacher 
may give the name, saying, All words that make nouns 
more definite are called adjectives. The pupils may be 
called upon to give the definition, — An adjective is a word 
that makes a noun more definite in its meaning. 

Application. — In this phase, drill and application take 
place, subjects to be discussed later in Chapter XXIII. 

In the lesson on adjectives, drill may be carried on as 
follows: Teacher — What part of speech is "tallest"? Ans. — 
An adjective. Teacher — Why? Ans. — Because it makes 
the noun "boy" more definite. (This is an example of 
deduction.) Teacher — What part of speech is "curly- 
headed"? Ans. — An adjective, etc., etc. The teacher might 
also ask the pupils to memorize the definition (a good prac- 
tice), and perhaps in doing so might require them to write 
it out. 

In application, the teacher may ask the pupils to compose 
other sentences in which they would try to make their 
meaning exact in this way. He may also have them collect 
cases in which they or others do not use enough adjectives, 



INDUCTION 



335 



and so cause people to misunderstand them, and also cases 
in which they use more adjectives than are necessary. 

Note. — The pernicious practice of asking no question which the 
pupils cannot at once answer has led to the use of too many little 
questions in developmental work. It is not profusion of questions 
but artistic economy that proclaims a good teacher. 

References for Class Reading 

Adams, Illustration and E x posit ion in Teaching, pp. 26-29, 
145-166. 

Bagley, Educative Process, pp. 285-304. 

Creighton, Introductory Logic, pp. 198-218. 

De Garmo, Principles of Secondary Education, Vol. II, 
pp. 43-64, 175-221. 

McMurry, Method of Recitation, pp. 74-117, 185-256. 

Strayer, A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, pp. 
51-68.' 

Thorndike, Principles of Teaching, pp. 154-160. 

Exercises 

1. Give five examples of generalizations you have ac- 
cepted, so far as you know, on mere authority. 

2. Give five examples of generalizations that you have 
worked out largely for yourself. 

3. Give five examples of generalizations that you at 
first accepted on authority, but later verified and found to 
be correct 

4. Give five examples of generalizations that you had 
accepted and used, but upon attempting to verify had to 
discard as incorrect. 

5. Name five of your most useful practical generaliza- 
tions, and show how they take care of a number of par- 
ticular cases. 



336 METHODS OF TEACHING 

6. Give an example showing how you unconsciously 
form generalizations in a manner similar to the first quota- 
tion from Adams. 

7. Work out in simple form presentation examples for 
the teaching of the following generalizations : 

1. It pays to tell the truth. 

2. The square of a binomial equals the square of 
the first term plus the square of the second plus 
twice the product of the first and second. 

3. Amount of interest = principal X rate X time. 

4. A verb agrees with its subject in number. 

5. If you dislike people, they will dislike you. 

6. Water expands when it freezes. 

7. An island is a body of land surrounded by water. 

8. How many particular cases does one usually examine 
before forming a generalization ? 

9. How many must one examine in order to be abso- 
lutely certain? 

10. How many are sufficient in order to be certain 
enough for practical purposes? 

11. Give an example of where you made a wrong 
generalization from examining too few cases. 

12. In the above cases in exercise 7, would it not be 
satisfactory to first state the generalization and use the 
particular cases you collected as examples for verifica- 
tion of the rule after it has been stated? Why? 

13. Would it be satisfactory to generalize from one of 
the examples and use the others as illustrations for verifi- 
cation ? Why ? 



CHAPTER XX 

DEDUCTION 

Section i. Definition and Analysis 

Definition. — Deduction is the process by which particu- 
lars are subsumed under classes. In deduction we label 
particular events, facts or situations with some general rule. 
I meet a man and say, "He is a negro. An honest man. A 
fraud." When I say this I am making a deduction, for I 
have a generalization about negroes, honest men, and frauds, 
and I place this individual in one of these classes. The boy 
who says, "I must multiply 8 by 6 in the problem : Find the 
cost of 6 lbs. of raisins at 8 cents a lb.," makes a deduction, 
because he says this is not a case of adding 6 and 8 or of 
dividing 6 by 8, but of multiplying. The boy who sees an 
angry bull charging at him and says, "I had better climb this 
tree," is using deduction, for here is a particular situation 
which is capable of being handled by a rule for getting out 
of the way. A doctor who says, "This is a case of typhoid," 
makes use of this process, for in a mass of symptoms shown 
by the patient he sees certain things which lead him to place 
the case in the typhoid class. 

The Value of Deduction. — To have keen powers of de- 
duction is a great advantage. Of these advantages the 
greatest is that implied in the definition. If one has ability 
to say what each particular thing is, he is able at once to 
fall back upon his stock of general principles. If I cannot 
say whether a man is a thief or an honest man, I do not 
know whether or not to trust him. If I happen to make a 

337 



338 METHODS OF TEACHING 

mistake and call a thief an honest man, I am likely to lose 
what 1 trust to him. If a boy with disaster rushing at him 
says, "This is a case of patting the animal on the nose," he 
will likewise suffer. If the doctor diagnoses typhoid as 
appendicitis, evil results accrue to the patient. 

The Work of Induction and Deduction. — Induction 
manufactures rules, deduction applies them to particular 
cases. Induction enables me to find out what nouns, verbs, 
adjectives, multiplication, percentage, commission, laws of * 
climate, and rules of hygiene are. Deduction enables me 
to label each situation I face with the tag belonging to the 
appropriate rule. 

While I may make one new generalization a day, I apply 
those already made to a thousand particular cases. Hence, 
while induction is important, since our rules need to be 
right, deduction is used much more frequently. In fact, 
there comes a time in life when it is almost impossible to 
manufacture new general rules and attitudes, and, as a con- 
sequence, new sorts of situations that cannot be handled by 
the rules made twenty years ago are botched by "old-timers," 
who are called "old fogies," "back numbers," and other such 
inelegant names. But every person is, in handling his 
actions from day to day, pretty much at the mercy of the 
stock of rules and principles he has on hand, particularly 
after he is too old to learn, — a calamity that comes to some 
at twenty, to most at forty, and to a few choice spirits at 
seventy or later. 

Analysis of Deduction. — Logicians usually analyze de- 
duction into three phases, — general principles, a particular 
case, and the inference which places or subsumes the case 
under its appropriate principle. 

The formal cases are usually thrown into the form of 
the syllogism ; as, for instance, the question arises, Is Soc- 



DEDUCTION 339 

rates likely to die? Now, we happen to know that ail men 
are mortal. This is a principle that is established and that 
we always rely upon. We know that Socrates is a man; 
the conclusion is therefore clear that he must die. 

Here we have an example of the three elements in 
syllogistic form. We want to know in particular whether 
or not Socrates will die. This is, presumably, a very impor- 
tant particular case. I may be wondering about placing life 
insurance upon him, or I may be his greedy and ungracious 
heir. But in any case I want to know what to do. Now, 
I have a great mass of principles that I believe, depend 
upon, and upon these I base my actions. Inference here 
steps in and searches for an appropriate principle. I happen 
to know that Socrates is a philosopher, but that inference 
leads nowhere. I remember that connubial dangers lurk 
in waiting for Socrates, but I am not sure that he will not 
escape those. That inference leads me back to uncertainty. 
I am not sure that such infelicities result either in death or 
longevity. Finally, inference strikes upon this : Socrates is 
a man, and I, knowing all men are mortal, now know that 
Socrates must die, and govern my actions accordingly. 

Making Inferences. — The making of the inference is the 
most difficult of these phases. Numbers of general prin- 
ciples, rules, methods of control, and so forth belong to the 
equipment of everybody. For the most part, these are 
efficient, although the slight difference between an educated 
and an uneducated man lies in very considerable part in 
the superiority of the generalizations of the former. Par- 
ticular cases confront all of us all the time. But inference 
which searches among the general stock and finds the cap 
that fits the complexion, size, and style of the particular 
case, is absolutely invaluable and more elusive. 

To a certain extent, inference, or searching for connec- 



34 o METHODS OF TEACHING 

tions, can be carried on by rules ; but for the most part, as 
in the forming of hypotheses, of which it is a special case, 
it is a more or less haphazard thing which can be influenced 
by experience, by training, and by that wide scientific train- 
ing which stocks the mind with efficient rules for handling 
cases. The man who is an expert in a field can in the long 
run be counted upon to make more correct inferences than 
one not an expert. James spoke wisely when he said that 
about all one can do in such a case is to saturate oneself with 
all the facts of the case, hoping thereby that the inference 
will spring forth. 

It is possible in many cases, by careful examination of 
the facts, to narrow the search for inferences by collecting- 
all possible cases and eliminating them one by one. 

Thorndike 1 says in this connection: "They are easy in 
proportion as the number of possible classes under which 
to think of the fact in question are known and are few, and 
in proportion as the consequences of being in each of such 
classes are known. Thus brevity can be only a noun or not 
a noun, and to decide that it is not a noun one needs only 
to decide that it is a noun or that it is not a verb, adjective, 
article, etc. How to translate anna in Anna virnmque cano 
Troice qui primus db oris, etc., is easy, because anna can 
only be nominative, accusative, or vocative plural of annum, 
or an imperative of armarc, and because the consequences 
of being nominative plural, being vocative plural, etc., are 
well known." 
Section 2. Deduction, a Special Form of Problem and Solution 

Problem. — Deduction, like induction, is a special form 
of the solution of a problem. In deduction the problem is 
to make inference. We do not make deductions at random. 
There is always some thing to do, some problem to solve, 

1 Principles of Teaching, p. 161. 



DEDUCTION 34I 

some need to satisfy. Shall I say "Have went" or "Have 
gone"? This leads to deductive reasoning, for I recollect 
that gone, not went, is the past participle, and that settles 
my question. How shall I make the children more ener- 
getic? I refer to principles of heating and ventilation. What 
is the amount of interest on this note? I refer to rules for 
computing interest. In all these the important thing is that 
we start with a problem. We have to make an inference 
that will allow us to go about our business. 

Data. — The data are the particular case and the appro- 
priate principles. These are both given in explanatory 
deductions, but the principles alone are given in anticipatory 
deduction. (These terms will be explained in the next sec- 
tion, and until then the explanatory type in which both prin- 
ciples and data are given will be discussed.) That they are 
given is evident at once. In the sentence Arma virumque 
cano, the question may be asked, What is the case of arma? 
Now, the particular arma in its setting is given here before 
me, but so, also, are the rules of Latin grammar given, and 
found in my head, or in a book, from which I can probably 
transfer them to my head. In the question, What kind of 
flower is this? I have given the specimen in my hand and 
the classifications of botany in my past experience. 

Of course, if the principles are not in experience, the 
process stops there and the deduction cannot be made. I 
am ignorant and helpless. Hence the principles must be in 
the data. 

If the principles are not among the data, and if the prob- 
lem is a pressing one, we have a strong motive for making 
inductions or of searching for principles that will be ac- 
cepted on authority. If I really wish to know to which 
class the flower belongs, and do not know the necessary 
botanical facts, I will make a strenuous effort to acquire the 



342 METHODS OF TEACHING 

knowledge. If a doctor has a case before him and does 
not know what inference to make, he will at once anxiously 
consult his authorities — unless he is the doctor who said, 
"I am uncertain as to what is wrong with the patient, but 
if we can throw him into a fit I am great on fits." In Mich 
case he would refer all cases to his one pet set of methods of 
treatment. 

Hypotheses. — The inferences made are the hypotheses. 
They are the guesses which are made in the attempt to solve 
the problem. This flower is an hepatica, a rose, a lily, are 
each guesses, or, in this case, inferences. The patient has 
malaria, ague, typhoid, are also possible inferences, or 
hypotheses. Arma is in the ablative, the nominative singu- 
lar, or the nominative plural, are also inferences and 
hypotheses. 

In the chapter on Induction we mentioned references in 
which would be found rules for assisting in forming 
hypotheses. Deduction also has its rules for inferences, 
which are stated by Thorndike 1 as follows : 

"It is made easier (i) by systematizing the process of 
search, (2) by limiting the number of classes amongst which 
the pupil must search for the right one, (3) by informing 
him of classes which include the right one and which he 
would neglect if undirected, and (4) by calling his attention 
to the consequences of membership in this or that class. 
Thus (1) to ask a pupil, "What word does arma come from? 
What declension is it? What cases can it be?" makes the 
inference about arma easier than if he were left to an un- 
systematic trial of one translation after another. Thus (2) 
the question, "What will probably happen to Norfolk, Vir- 
ginia, in the next thirty years?" is far too hard for eighth 
grade pupils, but "Which is the more likely, that Norfolk 

1 Principles of Teaching, pp. 163-4. 



DEDUCTION 343 

will increase its commerce or lose it?" is an appropriate 
question. Thus (3) the task of the pupil who is trying to 




prove as an original proposition, "If one straight line cuts 
another straight line, the opposite angles are equal," is made 
easier if he is told to think of all the angles of which angle 
AOB is a part and of all the angles of which angle COD is 
a part. (4) Help could have been given in the translation 
by suggesting that arma as accusative could find a place in 
the sentence as the object of cano ; in the geometry original 
by pointing out that the angle BOC is equal to angle AOD ; 
in the question about Norfolk by asking, "What sort of 
harbor has Norfolk? How near is it to European ports? 
To the wheat fields of the West? To the coal and iron 
district of West Virginia?" etc. 

Verification. — The verification of an inference is exactly 
similar to the general case of verification. If it works when 
it is tried on-, then it is correct. If I decide that the flower 
is an hepatica, and if it answers to all the tests, it is correct. 
If the doctor decides that the disease is typhoid, and if, upon 
the application of the methods of handling typhoid, it yields, 
he is satisfied that his inference was correct. If the decision 
that anna is accusative plural, neuter, makes a sensible 
translation, the student's verification is satisfactory. 

Section 3. TyrEs of Deductive Lessons 
Bagley makes a distinction full of significance for teach- 
ing, between what he calls the explanatory type and the 



344 METHODS OF TEACHING 

anticipatory type of deductive lessons. The essential differ- 
ence between these two is this : The explanatory type ex- 
plains why a particular case is as it is in terms of principles 
and rules; the anticipator}- type guesses what a particular 
case will be because of the principles and rules that will be 
involved in its occurrence. A simple illustration will make 
the difference clear. The question, Will rice grow in Mis- 
souri ? is anticipatory, because the conditions of temperature 
and moisture necessary for the growing of rice are known, 
and I can infer or forecast the kind of place in which it 
will grow. If such places are found in Missouri, then rice 
will grow in Missouri. But if the question is changed to, 
Why does rice grow in Louisiana? I have the explanatory 
type. For here there is no guess about its occurrence, since 
it grows there now, and all that we have to do is to explain 
the occurrence. 

Value of the Anticipatory Type. — A moment's con- 
sideration will show the great superiority of the type of 
mind that is capable of this anticipatory reasoning. People 
of this sort are the ones who in the confidence of their 
scientific knowledge venture upon a new enterprise and trust 
its successful outcome to their judgment. The Agricul- 
tural Department at Washington is doing this sort of thing 
all the time. Its agents search foreign countries with a fine- 
tooth comb for commercially valuable plants, determine the 
conditions under which they grow, and then infer the locality 
in this country in which they would be successful. And in 
this way many things once imported are now grown in 
abundance at home. The merchant who says, This is a 
eood location for a store ; the farmer who grows a new kind 
of crop ; the real estate man who opens a new addition ; 
the engineer who successfully builds a bridge, all use this 



DEDUCTION 



345 



type if they have not depended upon chance. The inventor, 
the progressive, and the radical think in this way. 

It is an easy thing to explain why the imported seed grows 
after it has grown ; why the merchant chose his location 
wisely after it has proved successful; why the real estate 
man made money, after it has been made ; and why the 
bridge stood the strain after it has been tested. It is easy 
for other people to copy, once the new anticipation has been 
realized. But it is original, exhilarating, and superb to be 
able to forecast what will happen from what is known. 
Every great advance of any sort was born as a correct and, 
in these latter days, usually as a scientific guess. 

Another reason for its use is that it appeals to the puzzle 
instinct. Children enjoy guessing at what will happen, and 
progressive adults do not differ from them in this respect. 
Mere guessing should be discouraged, but inferring or judg- 
ing should be encouraged, and verification will winnow the 
wild from the wise judgment. 

Examples of the Explanatory Type. — Bagley has 
worked out one example of each so well that I shall quote 
them here. This terminology differs from that used here, 
and I shall take the liberty of modifying it into conformity 
with ours. 

Illustrating the explanatory type, he says i 1 "Geography 
again furnishes some excellent examples of this type of 
deductive lesson. Assuming that the essential conditions of 
a good wheat country, a good corn country, a good cotton 
country, etc., have been developed by a careful inductive 
study of types in the United States, these principles may 
then be applied to the explanation of wheat, corn, or cotton 
belts in other countries. Thus the raising of wheat in 

1 Educative Process, p. 313. 



346 METHODS OF TEACHING 

European Russia is a fact that may well merit a develop- 
ment lesson of the explanatory type. 

Problem. — Wheat is grown in the central and southern 
portions of European Russia. Let us see why. 

Data. — What conditions have we found to be essential 
to a good wheat country? 

Climate : cool, with sufficient but not too much moisture — ■ 
at best, thirty to forty inches annually, with even distribu- 
tion. Hard wheat grows only in cool climates with fairly 
vigorous winters. 

Soil: fertile, not marshy, not exhausted. Ground fairly 
level, for convenience in harvesting. 

Other conditions: easy transportation, water preferred; 
land relatively cheap, population not dense. 

Inference. — Then if Russia is a good wheat country, it 
must fulfill these conditions. 

Verification. — Let us see if this is true. What is the 
climate of central and southern Russia? What is the nature 
of the soil? What can you find out about the rainfall? 
What means for water transportation? What conditions 
would render land relatively cheap? etc." 

Further illustration of the explanatory type is not neces- 
sary because it is so commonly known and understood. 
For wherever the question Why is asked, we must explain 
by reference to principles and rules. 

Examples of the Anticipatory Type. — Because of the 
importance, difficulty, and novelty of the anticipatory type, 
more space will be given to illustrating it. 

Again we quote from Bagley, 1 who gives a lesson whose 
problem is to determine deductively what the climate of the 
Andes Mountains probably is. 

"(1) The Data. — These are the facts with which we 

i Educative Process, pp. 308-9. 



DEDUCTION 347 

start. Taking the lesson on the climate of the Andes region 
as an example, it is clear that a study of the map will 
reveal certain salient facts concerning the position and 
extent of this region which may be brought out by ques- 
tioning: What is the general direction of the Andes system? 
Between what parallels of latitude? What zones are repre- 
sented in this extent? Where is the highland the widest? 
Approximately how wide at this point? Where narrowest? 
Compare the eastern and western slopes. Are the valleys 
high or low ? Narrow or broad ? What do we term a high, 
broad valley? 

Having completed this preliminary map study, the next 
step will be to impress other data that are essential to a 
study of the climate. The altitude of the principal ridges 
and plateaus may be told by the teacher or gathered from 
text-books or sources. Having these various facts in mind, 
the next step will be to review the — 

Principles. — What four general conditions govern cli- 
mate? (Latitude, altitude, distance from the sea, prevailing 
winds.) W T hat is the general effect of latitude upon climate? 
Of altitude? In what ratio does increase in altitude lower 
the temperature? (Approximately 3 for every 1,000 feet.) 
How does the neighborhood of large bodies of water affect 
climate? Under what conditions? What are the prevailing 
winds in the equatorial region ? How do they vary with the 
seasons? What are the prevailing winds in the temperate 
zones ? How do they vary with the seasons ? 

(2) The Inference. — According to latitude, what cli- 
matic zones would you expect to find in this region? How 
will altitude affect these conclusions? If the temperature 
at the sea level on the equator is 98 , what will be the 
temperature at an altitude of 10,000 feet? 20,000 feet? 
5,000 feet? How high are the plateaus in the northern 



348 .METHODS OF TEACHING 

Andes ? What, then, will be their climate, according- to lati- 
tude and altitude ? In what respect will the prevailing winds 
modify the temperature of this region? etc. 

The temperature of the central and southern portions of 
the region may then be inferred from similar data. Rainfall 
will probably be left for another lesson, but it may be 
inferred from an application of the same principles. 

(3) The Verification. — The inferences having- been 
placed in tabular form upon the blackboard, the pupils may 
then be encouraged to go to the text-books, encyclopedias, 
and other sources for empirical evidence that will support 
or controvert the conclusions. In some cases the deductive 
inferences may be found not to tally with the facts. It will 
then be necessary to search out the causes of the discrepan- 
cies. When all disputed points have been cleared up, the 
tabulated inferences may be modified to meet the facts, and 
recorded in permanent form in the pupils' note-books.'' 

De Garmo 1 says : "Literature offers a good field for the 
exercise of the anticipatory judgment, since it is supposed to 
represent events and results not so much as they are or 
were but as they might have been or ought to be. In such 
matters the student may well have a chance to try his inge- 
nuity and his ethical insight. Any literary work offers 
opportunities for such experiments, either by supposing a 
change in some essential part, or by varying the time and 
the place which furnish the setting for the piece, or, even 
without any such change, by supposing a different result to 
follow from the given combination of circumstances. What, 
for example, would have been the effect on the outcome of 
The Merchant of Venice had Shylock yielded to Portia's 
plea for mercy and had bid her destroy the bond ? What, if 
the judge had condemned him to death? What, if the 

1 Principles of Secondary Instruction, Vol. 2, pp. 127-8. 



DEDUCTION 349 

Prince of Morocco had chosen the right casket? Could 
Portia have extricated herself from her painful position as 
skilfully as she did Antonio from his ? Can you suggest a 
better plan for Bassanio to get rid of his debts than to 
marry a rich wife? What would the modern woman have 
said when Bassanio chose the leaden casket? In short, in 
literary study the student should not be denied the use of 
that power which Hamlet exercised when he exclaimed, 
'Oh, my prophetic soul, my uncle !' " 

The same method can be used in history. A student 
writes of a lesson recently taught as follows : 

"A class studying history is able to 'predict' events from 
comparison of the various causal conditions. For example, 
in the study of English history I have brought to the atten- 
tion of the class the facts of the numerous inventions fol- 
lowing 1760, and have asked what effect that must, of 
necessity, have had upon industry. They have been able 
to see that it must have had the effect of greatly stimu- 
lating manufacturing. Then to the question of the further 
influence it must have had upon population and methods of 
living, they have shown that manufacturing would draw 
people to towns, which would most likely be located in the 
regions of coal and iron. And still a further result that 
can be inferred, provided the students are informed about 
the matter of representation in Parliament, is the political 
effect of all this transfer of population from rural life to 
thickly settled cities and towns. All of these conclusions 
can be reached by the students in response to some ques- 
tioning by the teacher, and in advance of any reading." 

History is full of such cases. When students know that 
prior to 1756, England and France are strong rivals in 
colonial aggrandisement ; that on the borders are wild, half- 
savage pioneers whose passions are with difficulty kept in 



350 METHODS OF TEACHING 

leash ; that England's national life and that of the American 
colonists is more robust ; that the strategic points for hold- 
ing the empire claimed are Quebec, Du Quesne, Montreal, 
and Louisburg in America, and so forth, they can make a 
pretty accurate guess not only as to what will happen but 
as to what will be the objective points in the campaign and 
the final outcome. 

Composition in foreign languages is of the anticipatory 
type. The sentence, Ccesar pursued the enemy beyond the 
farthest outposts of the frontier, when being translated, 
makes the pupil take the anticipatory attitude. For he says 
in effect, what will be the Latin form for Caesar, for pur- 
sued, etc. ? This may not be very interesting to some stu- 
dents, but it possesses all the ear-marks of the type. 

Invention in English Composition is of the same type. 
I remember a simple composition exercise that created a 
vivid interest in a seventh grade class, which ran like this : 
A boy was going past the home of a very crusty old man 
who was noted for his antipathy to boys and who had a 
number of valuable pigeons, at that moment perched on the 
roof of an outbuilding near the street. The boy picked up 
a stone, threw it at the flock, and hit one of them, which 
fell off on the ground. The boy looked startled, started 
to run, thought better of it, walked up to the old man's 
door, and knocked. He went in, in a few minutes came 
out, and went off down the street, whistling, with the pigeon 
in his hand. Problem : What happened in the house ? 

In Arithmetic, among other forms of this type, pupils may 
be asked to make up practical percentage problems in con- 
nection with their own home activities. This may be varied 
for all the operations of the subject. This is anticipatory 
in type, because, knowing the principles involved, they look 
for particular cases to which they apply. 



DEDUCTION 351 

Section 4. Relation of Induction to Deduction 

The Two Always Together, — While we have distin- 
guished induction from deduction in the last two chapters, 
it is necessary to bear in mind that in every act of thought 
both are present. This may seem to be either impossible 
or a complete annulment of much that has been asserted in 
the last two chapters. But an illustration will make the 
point clear : 

A voter asserted and believed that an honest man would 
be efficient in public office. He accordingly voted for and 
helped elect William Smith, an honest man. This is deduc- 
tion. Because he says, in effect : 

Honest men make efficient public servants. 
W'illiam Smith is honest. 

Therefore he will be an efficient public servant. 
But he finds that the office is mismanaged. He investigates 
Mr. Smith's administration and finds that while he is 
honest he is not shrewd, and so was deceived by dishonest 
but cunning politicians. He therefore modifies his general 
principles — makes a modified induction, so to speak, to the 
effect that honest and intelligent men make efficient public 
servants. Here we have in the verifying phase of the deduc- 
tion the formation of a slightly different induction. 

Suppose, on the other hand, his nominee has proved effi- 
cient; he would still have modified his generalization by 
making it stronger, since when applied to one more case it 
still held. 

A boy in school learns to write. He has formed certain 
habits which apply to a particular letter every time he is 
called upon to make it. He makes the letter a always in 
the same way. This is a sort of deduction. But he does 
not make it in exactly the same way. Perhaps because he 
changes from pencil to pen, perhaps because he uses differ- 



352 



.METHODS OF TEACHING 



ent sorts of paper at different times, or perhaps because of 
varying rates of speed, he modifies his way of making the 
letter ; in fact, he is certain to do so, as anyone can prove 
who has copies of the handwriting he wrote from year to 
year. In other words, constant deductions or applications 
to particular cases modify his general method. 

When the theory of evolution was first enunciated it was 
made to apply to biology. Later it was applied to history, 
sociology, psychology, religion, education — all cases of 
deduction. But in so doing the nature of the first generali- 
zation was materially modified. The young teacher leaving 
the training school has a system of principles which she 
applies from day to day to the particular problems of the 
school room. In a year these principles have been modified 
and changed in spirit, content, and vitality by the process of 
application. 

On the other hand, when I make the induction : amount 
of interest = base, rate, time, for the examination of several 
problems, as : 

Interest on $100 for 2 yrs. at 6% = $12.00 

Interest on 75 for 4 yrs. at 5% = 15.00 

Interest on 120 for -J yr. at 4% = 2.40 

Interest on 60 for J yr. at 6% = 1.20 

I am making deductions constantly. The answer to each of 

these problems is based on induction — that we have to 

multiply, reduce percentage, etc., in each. 

Explicit vs. Implicit Elements.— Consequently when we 
are making inductions we are using deduction, and when 
we make deductions we are perfecting induction. The only 
basis upon which we are justified in saying that this is an 
inductive lesson and this a deductive, is that when induc- 
tion is explicit and deduction implicit it is an inductive les- 



DEDUCTION 353 

son, and when deduction is explicit and induction implicit we 
have a deductive lesson. For it depends upon what is in 
the focus of attention. If we are thinking about getting a 
rule from particulars and are not paying attention to deduc- 
ing rules, we are learning an inductive lesson. But if we 
are thinking about, have in the focus of attention the appli- 
cation of a rule to a particular case, and are not thinking 
of the effect of the application upon the rule, we have 
deduction. 

Thus it is possible to say that induction and deduction go 
on at the same time and still be able to say this is a deductive 
lesson and this inductive. 

References for Class Reading 
Bagley, Educative Process, pp. 305-315. 
Bolton, Principles of Education, pp. 630-632. 
De Garmo, Principles of Secondary Education, Vol. II, 
pp. 122-149. 

Dewey, Hozv We Think, pp. 74-100. 

Sutherland, The Teaching of Geography, pp. 155-159 

Thorndike, Principles of Teaching, pp. 160-164. 

Exercises 

1. Give five examples of the brightest cases of practical 
deductions of which you know. 

2. Throw the five foregoing examples into syllogistic 
form. 

3. What is the problem in induction? In deduction? 

4. What is the difference in one's attitude toward the 
generalization sought in induction used in deduction? 

5. Give two good examples of narrowing down the field 
of deduction from three to four to one inference by elimi- 
nating the impossible. 



354 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



6. How are the explanatory and the anticipatory types 
illustrated in contrast in 

a) Latin composition, 

b) weather reports, 

c) life insurance tables, 

d) in arithmetic, 

e) in hygiene, 

f) in literature? 

Illustrate in each case by particular examples. 









CHAPTER XXI 

THE UTILIZATION OF PAST EXPERIENCE 

Section i. The Old and the New 



Principle. — Each new method of control is composed of 
elements and modifications of old methods of control. The 
new method is a reorganization of past experience. The 
act of skating is composed of several actions already learned, 
such as balancing and stroking out with one foot, then the 
other. Shooting a rifle brings about co-ordinations of many 
muscles which have been previously learned. The drunken 
sot who reforms is compelled to make the best of a set of 
inadequate moral habits, and can never hope to do well the 
things he wishes to do. Multiplication consists of addition 
plus the memory of certain groups of figures. Twenty- 
eight times 27 consists of adding 27 eight times and twice 
remembering that the second group are tens. All of these 
were known before they were combined. This principle 
takes many forms in educational literature. 

Apperception. — The most commonly used form of the 
principle is called apperception. The Herbartians, who 
have given the term its widest currency, use it chiefly in 
connection with the acquiring of new ideas. McMurry, 1 for 
instance, says: "Appreciation may be roughly defined at 
first as the process of acquiring new ideas by the aid of old 
ideas already in the mind." Neglecting a faulty psychology 
which considers the new ideas as something external to the 

1 Elements of General Method, p. 257. 

355 



35^ 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



mind — as strangers before a city — and stating the concep- 
tion in a better way, Bagley 1 says : "The 'raw materials' of 
experience are the elementary processes of consciousness — 
sensation and affection. The making of these processes in 
their combinations significant — the reading of 'meaning' into 
them — is technically termed 'apperception.' Sensations that 
inform of the environment are interpreted not according to 
their intrinsic nature, but according to their reference to the 
needs of the organism." 

Everything has the meaning which past experience puts 
into it. The sentence : Job's wife said, "Curse God, and die," 
means to the reader a combination of meanings of indi- 
vidual words. Each word's meaning determines in part the 
meaning of the whole. He to whom the meaning of God 
is that of a just, all-powerful, splendid and awful individual, 
would get a quite different meaning of the whole than would 
one who thought of God as a being who was deposed and 
reinstated upon the whim of man. 

Children's errors in the use of words are a perennial 
source of humor, but they show the all-pervasiveness of the 
principle. When Johnnie sings, "The consecrated cross-eyed 
bear," when Isaac in the Ghetto sings, "We shall come from 
Joisey bringing in the cheese," they are using not wisely but 
well the principle of apperception — giving significance to 
words out of the fulness of their experience. Ideas are 
gained by the reorganization of what is in experience 
already. And since ideas are merely symbols for methods 
of control, apperception is the expression of the principle 
laid down in the opening sentence of the chapter. 

Attitudes. — The principle may be illustrated from atti- 
tudes. People of a certain "set" of mind see events in the 
light of their individual biases. The occupational bias illus- 

i Educative Process, pp. 81 and 82. 



UTILIZATION OF PAST EXPERIENCE 357 

trates this well. The artist, the engineer, and the geologist 
viewing Niagara Falls give it a quite different meaning 
because their attitudes to everything in life are different. 
The artist will see lines and colors, the engineers will dwell 
upon horsepowers and turbines, while the geologist will 
think in terms of rocks and geologic ages. Temperamental 
attitudes, such as the emotional, the intellectual, and the 
motor, produce different meanings. One of each type may 
see a mutilated animal on the street. To the emotional the 
spectacle is one of sadness, to the intellectual it is one of 
query and speculation, and to the motile it is a case of action. 
Each reacts according to his habitual mode of viewing life. 

Necessity for Review. — Since the foregoing is true, past 
experience is always in use, both in school and out. But 
there are certain occasions during the recitation where it 
is necessary, or desirable, for the teacher to have an explicit 
review of certain facts and activities that the pupils have 
previously experienced. Frequently it is not necessary for 
the teacher to review past experience with the class, because 
it will come up of its own accord. But, on the other hand, 
just as frequently there must be review. This is necessary, 
because, even though these data may be stored away some- 
where in experience, they are not, simply because of that 
fact, absolutely sure to be recalled. They may be tucked 
away in some outer zone of attention, and the appropriate 
association may be lacking to recall them to the focus of 
attention when they are needed. They need to be recalled, 
revived in consciousness, by the teacher in class. 

Relevant Past Experience. — It might seem unnecessary 
to state that the past experience reviewed by the teacher 
should be relevant to the problem under consideration. It is 
a matter of simple economy of time and intellectual effort 
to confine the review within those limits. And vet teachers. 



358 METHODS OF TEACHING 

through neglect or the desire to have some review of past 
experience because a theory calls for it, often fail to select 
facts and situations for review which have any logical con- 
nection with the problem in hand. 

Two illustrations will suffice. A teacher who conceived 
the function of Crossing the Bar to be "To describe a desire 
for a peaceful death" (the correctness of this being imma- 
terial, since we are concerned with the relevancy of his 
review of past experience) gave the following questions 
in review of the pupils' past experience : "Have any of you 
ever seen a harbor? Describe it. Show some pictures of a 
harbor. Describe the tides at the coming in and going out 
of a ship." This was the whole of the review. To be sure, 
the terms "harbor" and "tide" are used in the selection, and 
to that extent there is relevancy. But the relevant past 
experience, as determined by its logical connection with the 
essential features of the poem, would deal with ideas about 
death, or a review of Tennyson's life, showing how a pro'pos 
of the closing scenes and emotions of his life the poem is. 
Again, another teacher dealing with this same poem did 
review Tennyson's life, but in the following manner : "When 
was Tennyson born? When did he die? What were his 
chief works? What other of his poems have you read?" 
Good facts, to be sure, but what is their relevancy to this 
poem any more than to any other of his poems? How do 
they prepare the way for a better understanding or appre- 
ciation of the problem he was trying to solve? In order to 
make this review valuable, those facts, and those only, which 
show the poem's force and naturalness, should be reviewed. 

Section 2. Review for Motive 

Motive Found by Reviews. — One reason for a review 
of past experiences is to secure a motive for the study of the 



UTILIZATION OF PAST EXPERIENCE 



359 



lesson in hand. Sometimes immediate interest supplies the 
motive, without the necessity for any review. For instance, 
in the study of poems the teacher under some circumstances 
can secure the motive by the mere question, "What is the 
problem the author is discussing here?" But under other 
conditions a review of past experience is necessary. For if 
subject-matter provides the means for the control of values, 
generic or specific, it frequently happens that the values to 
be controlled have not been in the focus of the children's 
attention for some time, and hence may not be appreciated 
as highly as they otherwise might. Then it becomes neces- 
sary to bring them in and to create the conscious lack of 
control. 

Illustrations. — For instance, in teaching the rule for 
divisibility by three for the sake of speed in computing, it 
may be advisable to give the children a series of problems 
in which they work for speed. Then the teacher leads them 
to see that they are not sufficiently speedy. The rule then 
follows. 

Or, again, in the situation cited above, the study of 
Crossing the Bar, if immediate interest is not sufficient, a 
review of the author's life, showing his personal character- 
istics pertinent to the setting of the poem, may be made, and 
the question put, "How do you think such a man would view 
death?" Or, students old enough to have had thoughts 
about death may be questioned as to their opinion upon 
the subject, and then the statement may be made, "In the 
poem to be studied, Tennyson tells what he thinks death 
will be like." 

Again, in American history, if the value to be controlled 
be to see how a strong centralized government grew out of 
the needs of strong local governments, it may be necessary 
in beginning each lesson to go back to this value and to 



360 METHODS OF TEACHING 

have it restated so that it may be kept clearly in mind. The 
condition in which the problem was left at the last lesson, 
the new factors entering in at this lesson, and the new 
form which the problem takes because of these, may need to 
be reviewed in order to make the motive for studying this 
lesson as active as possible. 

Section 3. Review as an Aid in Solution 

It is necessary, also, to review past experience in order 
to bring to mind data that are essential for the solution 
of the problem raised at the beginning of the lesson. For 
here again the data may be forgotten, or may never have 
been known. In this the teacher may save the pupils much 
loss of time by explicitly bringing the needed data into 
the focus and thus obviate the necessity of searching for 
them. 

In this connection two remarks are necessary. In the 
first place this searching is good exercise for pupils under 
some circumstances. When the material may be recalled 
by the vigorous use of memory, the teacher who assists the 
pupils to recall it is taking away from them a much needed 
means of growth. Such efforts at recall make for self- 
reliance and strength. Or, if the material may be found in 
books easily, the children should be required to find it. In 
the second place, it is a mistake to develop too much intro- 
ductory material in any lesson. That is to say, the solution 
of the new problem should be near enough to the past 
experience of the child to make unnecessary the introduction 
of much new data. Long introductions tire the pupil before 
he comes to the real work. For instance, the phrasing of 
grammatical rules should not require the development of 
many words which are foreign to the pupil's vocabulary. 
If the rule must be stated in these words, it should not be 



UTILIZATION OF PAST EXPERIENCE 361 

taught until the pupils have sufficient breadth of scholar- 
ship to have met the words in other connections. 

Illustrations. — A few examples will indicate some situa- 
tions in which this review is advantageous. In the problem, 
How large will we have to make a bin in order to hold a 
ton of coal? it may be necessary to review the relation of 
pounds to volume in connection with coal. If the pupils ought 
to know it, or if they can easily find it for themselves in 
their arithmetic, this will not be advisable. In solving the 
fodder problems given earlier, the teacher may find it neces- 
sary to make an explanation of the devices used in the 
tables for tabulating the information. In the study of litera- 
ture the teacher often finds it necessary to recall the mean- 
ings of words which have been previously studied. The 
cases where such reviews are advisable are multitudinous in 
the course of every day's work. 

Section 4. Review for Functional Connection 

In Chapter XXIII the question of application will be dis- 
cussed. Without anticipating this later discussion, the fol- 
lowing statement will set the problem of this section more 
clearly before us. When the solution of the problem has 
been reached it is advisable to apply it to other problems of 
the same type. This is true because each solution is an 
instrument created for a specific purpose but usable in cer- 
tain other situations. The more varied the uses to which it 
is put, the better will be the grasp upon it. 

Now its use or purpose may be exemplified in two places, 
either when the problem is raised or when the solution has 
been reached. For instance, it has been said repeatedly that 
one way of securing a motive is to create a breakdown in 
control, for then the pupils will see the purpose of the lesson 
to be studied. At that point functional connection is made 



362 METHODS OF TEACHING 

with past experience. But frequently the teacher is able to 
secure the motive by an appeal to immediate interest, and 
then functional connection may not be made at the outset. 
In this case the method of control worked out may still be 
used in other situations after it has been learned. Indeed, 
even when the functional connection is made at the outset, 
other applications may be made later. But in every case this 
connection serves as a means for recalling past experience, 
and in so far as the teacher intends it to be for that purpose 
it is germane to the discussion of this chapter. 

Illustrations. — Whether the pupils learn the rule for 
divisibility by three because they feel the need of speed for 
controlling certain generic values or because of immediate 
interest, in either case, after the rule has been learned, it 
serves as a means for reviewing past experience when it is 
applied to work which the children have already been doing 
by the slower method. Again, if the Psalm of Life is studied 
because of immediate interest, the ideas the pupils have had 
previouslv may be called up when applications are made. 
In studying physics, even when no attempt has been made 
to provide a motive for study other than those used in con- 
nections with all subjects, after any principle has been 
studied, frequent and wide application may be made to prob- 
lems that lie within the everyday experience of the students. 
Similarly, in the study of history, even when no attempt is 
made to strengthen the motive, application of the principles 
discovered will serve as a means for calling up past 
experience. 

Section 5. Review of the Previous Lesson 

Under some circumstances the teacher may feel the need 
for reviewing, the previous day's lesson before beginning 
the new lesson. This is done wherever drill is necessarv 



UTILIZATION OF PAST EXPERIENCE 363 

in order to fix the facts in mind. It is also done when the 
new lesson grows out of the old lesson. Such review is 
probably not necessary when short poems in literature are 
being studied, and when in such case the poems are not 
studied for the facts they contain. Each poem being an 
isolated unit, it may have no functional connection with 
succeeding units. Likewise, it will not be necessary when 
pupils are drilled for a number of days in an arithmetical 
process. For each succeeding day continues the drill, and 
the whole "new" lesson is a review of the previous day's 
lesson. 

The Time for Review. — A simple matter of mechanics 
is involved in answering this question. Should the reviews 
of past experience be at the beginning, the end, or the 
middle of the recitation? To facilitate the discussion the 
reader is asked to glance at Chapter XIX and to observe 
that the recitation may be divided into Preparation, Develop- 
ment, and Application. Now, review for the sake of motive 
must, of course, occur in the Preparation. The review of 
the previous day's lesson usually occurs at the very begin- 
ning of the Preparation. Review for functional connection 
occurs usually in the Application, but may occur in the De- 
velopment. Review for assistance in solution is sometimes 
put in the Preparation, sometimes at the beginning of De- 
velopment as an introductory step, and sometimes is intro- 
duced wherever it is needed in the Development. It seems 
advisable to exclude it from the Preparation. But where 
in the Development it should be placed is a matter of indi- 
vidual preference. Some teachers prefer to clear the ground 
before beginning the solution; others claim that this pro- 
cedure gives too much preliminary assistance and indicates 
too obviously the direction which attempts at solution should 
take. The experienced teacher who has a mastery of the 



364 METHODS OF TEACHING 

technique of teaching depends largely upon his feeling of 
the fitness of the time and place. 

References for Class Reading 

Bagley, Educative Process, pp. 83-94. 
Bolton, Principles of Education, pp. 520-4, 529-551. 
McMurry, Method of Recitation, pp. 255-297. 
Thorndike, Principles of Teaching, pp. 42-50. 

Exercises 

i. Give five humorous examples of faulty apperception. 

2. Give five examples of particularly clever appercep- 
tion from your own experience or reading. 

3. Show how one's attitude toward an object of investi- 
gation determines in great part what one sees in it. 

4. Give ten good examples of review for motive, using 
school work as far as possible. 

5. Give five examples of faulty review. 

6. Show how you would improve them. 

7. Should such reviews be long or short? Why? 

8. Give five examples of where it was necessary to re- 
view some points in order to finish a solution. 

9. Should all this review come in at the very outset 
or as needed? Illustrate. 

10. What is meant by "review for functional connec- 
tion"? Illustrate it. Is it a practical thing? Why? 



CHAPTER XXII 

METHODS OF SECURING REALNESS 

If we were able to follow the child in toto and solve only 
those problems for him which arise without our manipula- 
tion, there would be little need for trying- to make situations 
real. But in the ordinary course of school work, with sub- 
ject-matter to be presented to the pupils, very frequently 
great care has to be taken to assure the realness of the 
problems which are to be attacked and of the solutions 
which are to be arrived at. Under these conditions some 
discussion of the methods by which realness and vividness 
may be given to the subject-matter is in place. 

Too much covered. — It may be laid down as a general 
proposition that too much work is covered in most courses 
in school. This does not mean that children are overworked, 
but refers to the fact that school work is not sufficiently 
intensive. For instance, in English History, if, instead of 
covering all the history in skeleton form, a few epochs were 
studied intensively and the intervening periods omitted, the 
students would be better prepared to participate in modern 
life. 

Unless this is done, the skeletonized accounts in history 
and the abstract processes in other subjects have little mean- 
ing and little bearing upon practical conduct. The criticisms 
of business men upon the mathematical inability of gradu- 
ates of the public schools is in large part due to the fact 

365 



366 METHODS OF TEACHING 

that school processes are gone over so rapidly that they are 
not built up vitally in the minds of the children. 

Type lessons. — One method of securing this richness of 
detail is the type lesson in which one typical case of a large 
group is worked out in detail as a basis for the understand- 
ing of all. McMurry has worked this out in excellent form, 
references to which are given at the end of the chapter. 

Problems. — One method very frequently discussed is 
that of making the problem solved by the subject-matter the 
problem of the pupils. It requires the teacher to search the 
experience of the child to find things of value in the control 
of which a breakdown can be made to occur, such that the 
subject-matter will appear as the remedy. This does not 
require further elaboration at this point. 

Imagination. — Of the other aids to realness imagina- 
tion and comparison are chief in importance. (In treating 
imagination no function of the image except that of making 
situations more real and vivid will be discussed.) 

The average man does better and more intelligent work, 
and has clearer and more intelligent opinions upon his own 
work than upon that of any other individual. The reason 
for this is that in his own case he has the facts, the ideas, 
feelings, etc., with all their associations, at first hand, and 
easily within his observation ; while in thinking upon the 
plans and work of other people he has to build up in imagina- 
tion the situation which their work is supposed to involve. 

It is also generally conceded that any one can do intelli- 
gent work in other than his own actual conditions in pro- 
portion to the truth, clearness, and vividness with which he 
can build up these other conditions, in his imagination. The 
Englishman can give better advice to another Englishman 
than to a Chinaman. A man is better able to understand 
other men than he is to understand women. And this for 



METHODS OF SECURING REALNESS 367 

the reason that he can put himself into the exact situation 
of the person to be understood in the one case better than 
in the other. 

In school the child is sometimes by necessity removed from 
the actual situations which he studies. It is impossible for 
him to live in Athens with Pericles or in Rome with Au- 
gustus Caesar. In studying arithmetic he cannot be the 
grocer, or the banker. In literature he cannot be Macbeth 
or Hamlet. Because he is removed from the real situation 
he cannot do as intelligent work as if the conditions were 
actual. And hence the immense importance of making the 
situations which he studies, be they historical, arithmetical, 
or literary as real as possible through imagination. 

And, indeed, the child is more capable of such imaginative 
work than is the adult. He is just emerging in the grades 
from the world in which he actually has to learn to distin- 
guish the real from the imaginary, and without great effort 
he can be led to reconstruct the historical situation with a 
good deal of vividness and more or less correctness. In 
arithmetic, it is not hard for him to imagine himself to be 
a banker charging interest and floating stock companies, 
providing the" teacher does his part in supplying inspiration 
and aids. 

The aids which the teacher has at hand to assist are of 
four sorts. First, there is comparison of the imagined situa- 
tion with the pupil's own experiences, secured by first of all 
advising the pupils to imagine themselves to be in the 
situation, and then describing it by similarity and contrast 
with that with which the teacher knows the children are 
familiar. 

Second, there are material models, specimens, etc. In 
illustrating history we may have the actual instruments and 
clothing used by the people. We may have specimens of 



368 METHODS OF TEACHING 

work that they did and of the things that they built. When 
we cannot have these, we may have models of them, models 
of Grecian houses, models of fortifications, etc. The sand 
table, well utilized, is one of the best instruments at the 
teacher's disposal (in some cases even as high as the eighth 
grade) for making the situation real. 

Third, he may utilize pictures, diagrams, maps, and black- 
boards. Pictures are of great service in geography; dia- 
grams may be used to advantage in arithmetic. It is im- 
possible to teach campaigns in history without the use of 
maps. (The use of the blackboard is reserved for a sepa- 
rate treatment.) These all in their way tend to make the 
situation real. Indeed, pictures and models are often bet- 
ter than the actual situation because they center the attention 
upon the important points, while in the actual situation the 
attention may not be so centered. 

Fourth, another aid to the teacher is dramatization. This 
is probably the greatest aid to the imagination. Pictures 
assist somewhat, maps assist in their degree, specimens are 
useful, models give contour, but dramatization gives all these 
and more. These other aids lack action. They are dead. 
The imagination has to make them live. Dramatizing a 
banking house, a grocery store, William Penn and the In- 
dians, gives life and force to what knowledge the pupil 
has. Dramatization assists the imagination most effectively 
and forms a better skeleton around which the imagination 
may put the flesh of real life. 

Dramatization. — The advantages of dramatization are, 
first, as just said, that it makes the situation very real, and 
second, that it gets the child into the habit of seeing things 
vividly, so that the imagination has through it a high stand- 
ard set which it will in the absence of dramatization seek 
to reach. That is to sav, if in early life the child has dram- 



METHODS OF SECURING REALNESS 369 

atized much he will get into the habit of imagining things 
clearly, and in the higher grades, in the high school and in 
later life, when a situation is put before him meagerly with- 
out the vivid dramatic element present, his imagination will 
have a tendency not to rest content, not to feel comfortable, 
until the situation has been brought up to the high standard 
of reality to which it has been accustomed. 

There is always a question for the teacher as to the 
amount of dramatization that ought to be used in the 
school. Part of the question can be eliminated if we re- 
member that the chief reason for the use of dramatization 
is its capacity for making a situation real. Dramatization, 
as mere dramatization, ought to occupy a very small space 
in school life. Therefore, unless it is brought into line 
with the problems of the lesson and used as an aid in making 
them real, it should be rigidly excluded. In the case of 
valuable dramatization the question remains as to how much 
there should be in the first grade, and how much should be 
in the eighth grade. The only light that can be thrown 
upon the question comes from the fact that in the recitation 
the child is trying to do something, and that dramatization 
will assist his imagination to make it more real. Therefore, 
where the subject-matter needs many aids to make it con- 
crete, or where the child is better able to deal with concrete 
as over against abstract situations, the dramatization should 
be used to the greatest extent. Seemingly it is most at home 
in the earliest grades, for the child is living in the world of 
imagination; he thinks concretely and thinks naturally in 
dramatic form. But in the eighth grade, after a long course 
of training in taking symbols and making them real by 
means of the aids already mentioned, he ought to be able to 
get along with less dramatization, with less verbal descrip- 
tion than in the earlier grades. If he is able to realize the 



37o 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



situation without the aid of any of these props it is better 
for him to do so, and if he can do it, it indicates that his 
imagination has grown strong and effective. 

Blackboards. — A separate chapter might be devoted to 
the use of the blackboard in making situations real. It 
seems almost as though student teachers were afraid that 
the blackboard might be worn out or that chalk was expen- 
sive. Because of their recognized value, blackboards are 
put in at great expense by school boards and given a promi- 
nent place in the recitation room often to be little utilized 
by the teacher. If a word is not correctly pronounced or if 
a new word is met, does the student teacher write it on the 
board? Rarely. If a sentence in history needs explanation 
and could be explained by a diagram of three lines on the 
board, would the inexperienced teacher use it ? Rarely. He 
prefers to spend a minute trying to give a hazy idea and 
even then probably fails. If a difficult lesson is to be de- 
veloped does the young teacher put the main topics on the 
board to assist in the summary ? Seldom. One would think- 
that the board would be used a great deal in geography, but 
it is not. 

This is an extreme statement. Conditions are not quite so 
bad as this ; but they are bad. When one thinks of the in- 
creased ease with which so many pupils see relations ; of the 
value our outlines are to ourselves, of the fact that many 
people think best when they see what they are thinking 
about, it makes him wonder why the blackboard is so little 
used. 

It has been said by some that the blackboard should show 
at the end of the lesson an epitome of all that has been 
developed in the recitation. This is extreme, and cannot 
always be done, especially in such subjects as drawing, man- 
ual training, music, and, perhaps, reading. And it need not 



METHODS OF SECURING REALNESS 371 

always be true in the case of geography, history, or arith- 
metic. The end is not the utilization of the blackboard, but 
the making of the subject-matter clear and real, and if this 
can be secured most economically without the blackboard 
there is no reason for using it. But the lessons in which 
facts are to be collected and organized are few in number 
where the points should not be written on the board as they 
are made, or before the end of the lesson. And, moreover, 
there are very few lessons of any sort which cannot be 
gotten under better control by the children through the lib- 
eral use of this instrument. 

Experience.— It has been constantly implied and should 
now be definitely stated that the material upon which these 
instruments are used is the past experience. In dramatiza- 
tion, and in the use of pictures, models and specimens, the 
thing that is being operated upon is the past experience ot 
the child. If I speak in a farming community I use one 
sort of instrument appealing to the past experience of that 
group ; with city audiences another instrument is used to tap 
other past experiences. And teachers often fail in making 
the situation real because the illustrations they prepare so 
carefully are above the heads or beyond the experience of 
their pupils. It is the inalienable right of every child to 
have the educational gospel presented to him in his own 

tongue. ,1-1 

Comparison.— Comparison, the other psychological 

process to be discussed, has two sorts of values. In the first 
place, it aids the teacher in making situations clear and 
vivid! as has been said. The pupil draws from his past 
experience things similar to those in the situation. For in- 
stance, in trying to get a true picture of Wordsworth's Fid- 
dler the pupils are aided materially by being referred, on 
the one hand, to their own experience with fiddlers on the 



372 METHODS OF TEACHING 

street, and on the other hand, to the influence of music upon 
other people, as shown in Browning's Saul, and Dryden's 
Alexander 's Feast. 

This comparison is sometimes called illustration, and 
sometimes analogy. But of whatever sort, it is of para- 
mount importance in getting hold of situations in the sense 
indicated above. The convincing speaker is frequently one 
with convincing powers of comparison. The teacher has a 
broader influence, and can get better results if he has telling 
comparisons by which to make his explanations understand- 
able. 

The second value that comparisons have (to be discussed 
more fully in the next chapter) may be called comparisons 
of application. That is to say, after a solution has been 
reached the process of comparison makes it possible for us 
to observe relations with other problems so that we may 
apply the solution to other similar situations. In history, 
after we have treated of a problem of the ancients, it is 
legitimate and valuable to refer the problem and its solution 
to modern life to see if we can find the problem still with 
us, to find in what respects it differs in form and to what 
extent the solution of the ancients will fit our conditions. 

References for Class Reading 

Adams, Illustration and Exposition in Teaching, pp. 250- 

274. 317-335, 354-390- 

Dopp, The Place of Industries in Education, pp. 192-242. 
McMurry, The Method of the Recitation, pp. 246-256. 
McMurry, Special Method in Geography, pp. 11-13, 17-19 

and 55-75- 

Exercises 

1. Is the amount of work to be covered in a year a mat- 
ter of scientific investigation or of convention ? If the latter, 



METHODS OF SECURING REALNESS 373 

is it absolutely necessary to cover all the work in a course 
of study? Why? 

2. What are the merits of a few topics covered inten- 
sively as against an extensive field covered rapidly? What 
are its disadvantages? 

3. Give illustrations to show how the following have 
made lessons clearer. 

1 . Diagrams. 

2. Pictures. 

3. Stories. 

4. Comparisons with events in the pupils' own lives. 

4. What are the chief objections to dramatization? 

5. Give one example of an observed case in which 
dramatization was a failure with a class. 

6. Give five in which it was a success. Show why it 
was a success. 

7. Give two cases of poor use of blackboard. 

8. How would you have improved it? 

9. Give five examples in which a speaker or teacher 
failed because he did not clothe his ideas in the language of 
his audience. 

10. Name ten selections in literature that could not be 
made real to pupils because they were not within the experi- 
ence of the children to whom they were taught. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

THE USE OF SUBJECT-MATTER 

Section i. Subject-matter as an Instrument 

To understand how to use subject-matter, such under- 
standing as has been provided for in the foregoing chapters, 
does not of necessity imply skill in use. We have studied 
how to make rules and definitions, and solve problems. But 
efficient control is not identical with an understanding of 
how the control is to be secured. Skill and understanding 
are different. A boy may know how to handle all the 
processes of arithmetic if time is given him, but unless he 
has skill in manipulation he cannot be said to have efficient 
control. A girl may have enough training in sewing to con- 
struct stitches and draught patterns, but this is not sufficient 
control unless it is skillful control. 

Value of Skill. — Differences in degrees of skill index 
the differences between grades of men. When competi- 
tion is so keen and men are so plentiful, the margin that 
separates success from defeat is a very narrow one, and 
that margin is usually secured by a slight superiority in 
skill. In running, the victory goes ordinarily to the one 
who is best trained, and most skillful in the devices of the 
art, and usually the margin between one contestant and 
another is small. In teaching as well as in the other profes- 
sions and in business, skill gives one man precedence over 
another. It has become a trite saying, and therefore an 
important one, that it does not matter so much what a man 

374 



THE USE OF SUBJECT-MATTER 375 

can do as how well he can do it. The quickness, the dis- 
patch, the exactness with which he can do a thing must be 
added to the fact that he can do it at all. Many men can 
perform surgical operations, but the man who is the great- 
est success in surgery is the one who can perform them 
with the most skill. Many men can play baseball; but the 
only man who stands out as a success in baseball playing 
is the one who can play with consummate skill. It would 
seem, therefore, that skill, in the close competition of life, 
is absolutely necessary. 

Skill is partly a matter of judgment and partly a matter 
of habit. In either case it is dependent upon practice and 
repetition. The advantages of habit, therefore, are advan- 
tages that may be claimed for skill. Of these three impor- 
tant ones may be mentioned. 

First, by making a rule or method habitual through 
proper repetition, accuracy is secured. The memorized mul- 
tiplication fact, the word spelled without thought upon it, as 
the pen slips over the paper, the steady foot of the struc- 
tural-iron worker busy with thoughts far removed from his 
perilous position, the experienced engineer at the throttle, 
the pupil in whom linguistic conventions have been thor- 
oughly grounded, are all more accurate in their movements 
than they were before they had acquired skill. 

Second, skilled action is more rapid. The little pupil has 
laboriously to concentrate on the formation of the letters 
of the alphabet, writing ten letters per minute ; with practice 
he may ordinarily write two hundred letters a minute. A 
similar increase in rapidity is seen in all of the subjects 
studied in school and in all practices pursued outside. 

Third, an important result that comes from increasing 
skill is increasing satisfaction, sturdiness and pleasure. The 
explanation of the independence and self-reliance of the. 



376 METHODS OF TEACHING 

skilled workman, in comparison with the unskilled laborer 
is due in large measure to the fact that the former has a 
pride in his skill and a pleasure in recognizing it that makes 
him feel his independence and cherish his individuality. 
Frequently, the joy that follows the recognition of skill in 
some one thing so permeates a boy's life that the influence 
is felt in toning up his whole working system, waking in him 
day-dreams and air-castles built upon the basis of his best 
ambitions. 

Standards of Skill. — Outside school there is only one 
standard — that of absolute efficiency. But in school the 
standard is influenced wisely and humanly by differences in 
capacity. These differences are of two sorts, genetic and 
individual. 

Standards vary genetically ; that is, there is one standard 
of skill for the first grade and a higher standard for the 
high school- senior. Theoretically, the standard for each is 
the best of which pupils of the grade are capable. Prac- 
tically, in applying this standard, there are two difficulties. 
In the first place, normal standards have not been worked 
out for the different grades. We do not know exactly what 
amount of skill to expect of third, fourth or fifth grade 
children. Consequently, the teacher who wishes to get the 
best out of his pupils may easily overestimate or under- 
estimate their maximum efficiency. In the second place, 
standards in the same grade may be different upon different 
occasions. For instance, a formal letter written by a sixth 
grade pupil is expected to be done with a maximum of neat- 
ness and care for grammatical and orthographic details; 
but notes taken hurriedly in preparation for a theme can- 
not be as neat without slowing up the thought processes. 
It is an important point to determine just what standards 
should be maintained in exercise books. Slovenliness must 



THE USE OF SUBJECT-MATTER 377 

not be allowed, extreme neatness and care for form may 
hinder the mastery of the content studied. Desirable as 
these standards are, they have not been worked out fully 
and the teacher has to do the best he can for himself. How- 
ever, rapid progress is being made in securing some of these 
standards, as, for instance, in arithmetic by Stone and 
Courtis, in handwriting by Thorndike and Ayres, and in 
high school composition by Thorndike and Hillegas. 

In the second place, the school cannot hold all pupils to 
the same immediate standards without discouraging those 
pupils who are slow and inexpert. The best that each pupil 
can do forms the immediate standard. The normal stand- 
ard for the grade will not work for the pupils either above 
or below it except for promotion. For the bright boy must 
be held to his best and the slow student must likewise be 
judged by his maximum. What is each pupil's best can be 
determined only by the teacher with the pupils before him. 

How standards may be raised. — Sometimes a teacher 
takes charge of classes that do not have good standards of 
skill and is confronted with the problem of raising their 
ideals of strong work. In solving this problem two things 
will assist. First, the teacher, himself, must have stand- 
ards. He must think about them, and must determine that 
his pupils are to work toward higher levels of efficiency. 
Unless a teacher has such standards he cannot hope to 
increase tbe efficiency of his pupils. A slovenly teacher 
always has a slovenly class. 

Second, skill must be rewarded. In other words, if pu- 
pils are to be led to appreciate skill it must be connected 
with other values which pupils appreciate. Results that ap- 
peal to him should follow. What these results may be de- 
pend upon the pupils. Praise from a respected teacher is 
a good reward. The tremendous saving of time that can 



378 METHODS OF TEACHING 

be accomplished by increased skill appeals to many students 
particularly when the thing in which the skill is to be gained 
is not more than normally interesting. As Rowe says, 1 
experimentation should be carried on with individual pupils 
to find what reward will appeal. Unpleasant results arising 
from lack of skill can also be visited upon delinquents. This 
does not mean constant nagging because, after a series of 
continuous scoldings, the pupil ceases to value the good opin- 
ion of the teacher and so will not try to increase his skill 
to secure what he does not value. 

In securing an interest in high standards the teacher, then, 
has to have such standards himself and must utilize the 
values which the child appreciates in such a way that he will 
work for skill in order to secure the control of these. This 
is a matter of ingenuity rather than of rule and principle. 

Section 2. Application 

Definition. — Application, as the term implies, is the 
process of using a method of control which has been learned 
in connection with one situation in controlling another situa- 
tion which, while not identical with the first, is essentially 
the same. A pupil learns addition and multiplication in 
tables and with abstract figures in school.. When he applies 
these to figuring out the total of a grocery bill consisting 
of several items he is applying his method of control (addi- 
tion and multiplication) learned in one situation (in tables 
and abstractly) to control another situation (totalling a 
grocery bill), which, while not identical with the form in 
which addition and multiplication was previously learned, 
is essentially a case of addition and multiplication. 

Its Importance. — There are two reasons which make 
application necessary. First, a principle is never fully under- 

1 Habit Formation, pp. 141-6. 



THE USE OF SUBJECT-MATTER 379 

stood until it has received frequent applications to concrete 
cases. "All men are born free and equal" does not mean 
much if it is only lip-learned. Its essence, its flaws and its 
power are appreciated only when it is consistently and con- 
scientiously applied to the negro, the servant, the drunk- 
ard, the imbecile, and the plutocrat. Percentage is increas- 
ingly well understood as it is carried through all its appli- 
cation ; interest, discount, commission, taxes, etc. English 
grammar is not efficiently appreciated till the pupil uses it in 
all his spoken and written work. Every application of geog- 
raphy to history and literature, to botany and agriculture, 
to physics and sociology gives a better understanding of the 
subject. 

Second, the chief occupation of life is to handle wisely a 
series of situations as they arise. Living is just meeting 
one thing after another. I am writing now, I shall have 
lunch in a few minutes, then I shall go to the office and dic- 
tate one letter after another, I shall select a teacher for a 
school, buy a Christmas present for a friend, settle what to 
do with an aching tooth, confer with a friend about school 
extension and so on indefinitely. These are a few of the 
things that must be done in an afternoon, and they are 
typical of every afternoon. Every person has his own series, 
following along at the rate of one a minute, or maybe, more 
rapidly than that. 

Now, facts, principles and rules are simply and solely 
devices for handling these particulars. If I have a good 
system of principles that will take me through each of these 
with accuracy, rapidity and satisfaction, I am efficient. But 
if I have a system and am not able to apply them to par- 
ticular situations it is of little use. I may have a great deal 
of factual and isolated information but if I cannot use it 
minute by minute I am only an educated incompetent. 



380 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Application is therefore necessary because the application 
of principles is the chief function and business of intelli- 
gence in life. To control each situation by reference to 
principles is the characteristic of efficiency. To control it 
empirically, by rule of thumb is the necessary lot of the 
uneducated. To have principles and not to apply them is 
the mark of pseudo-education, of one who is an educated 
performer in a world of words and abstractions but an il- 
literate worker in the world of concrete activity and feeling. 

Application before and after. — The applications are 
usually thought of as coming after the learning of the 
principle because it is not possible to apply something that 
one does not possess. 

But there is a very significant sense in which the applica- 
tion of a principle precedes the mastery. In fact, outside of 
school it is the normal thing, the usual occurrence, to find 
the necessity for the application of the principle, the chief 
cause of its study. The clerk wants to keep books better 
and so he learns the principles and methods of bookkeeping. 
The farmer wishes to grow more corn, so he studies the 
principles of corn growing. The housewife wishes to have 
pretty roses, and studies enough horticulture to serve her 
purposes. In each case, a person felt the need of being 
able to apply certain principles to his immediate needs, he 
saw the necessity for application, he appreciated the advan- 
tage to accrue ; but he did not have the principles. So, in a 
very significant sense, the desire to apply principles in these 
cases formed the motive for the study of the principles. 

The customary school procedure is, in the cases cited, to 
teach bookkeeping and make the application to particular 
books later, to teach the principles of agriculture, and make 
applications later upon particular fields, to study horticul- 
ture first and raise rose bushes afterwards. This procedure 



THE USE OF SUBJECT-MATTER 381 

is merely another case of studying the subject-matter for its 
own sake first and then making applications after it is 
learned. 

But, as previously pointed out in connection with motive, 
if one can make the pupils feel some other supporting need, 
much additional interest will be engendered because the 
concrete case in which he sees the need for the application 
of a principle as yet unknown is likely to be of greater 
compelling power than the interest in an as yet unknown 
principle whose application is not seen. 

Illustrations of such are easy to find in any class in which 
the teacher does not feel that the order of the subject-matter 
is foreordained. In Chapter XV, in Composition, this 
method is used all the way through. The pupils wrote and 
saw that they needed to apply some principle. They studied 
the principle and then applied it. First was felt the neces- 
sity for application of some rule, then the discovery and 
study of the rule and then its application. 

In algebra a problem such as this : A farmer has a seed 
plot 16x18 feet and wishes to add to its area 144 square 
feet by enlarging it the same distance each way. In finding 
the answer to this three new principles had to be taken up — 
each needed because their application was necessary in order 
to find the answer. In physics the measurement of water 
power is introduced because pupils want to know the capac- 
ity of an undershot wheel or a turbine. Electricity is stud- 
ied in order to learn how to fix a door bell. Musical theory 
is introduced to explain the combinations of piano notes 
which are pleasant. The theory of light is introduced to 
explain the method by which light comes from the sun to 
the earth. 

Ordinarily, in most classes the applications are made only 
after the principles are studied. But as just seen, many 



382 METHODS OF TEACHING 

cases arise in which the necessity for application can with 
wisdom precede the study. And then many other applica- 
tions can be made later. To search for these introductory 
applications, to make a note of them when they occur in 
order to use them as soon as possible, are practices which 
add much to the joy and to the intelligence of teaching. 

Illustrations of Application. — There are two types of 
application. The first and easiest of these to use is the 
formal application exercise. In arithmetic, following the 
enunciation of a principle, a series of problems usually occurs 
differing in detail but similar in type and, therefore, capable 
of solution by the principle just studied. In grammar, after 
the definition a series of exercises is given, utilizing the 
definition. These formal exercises are well known to any 
teacher or student. To secure the best they should be, 
as has just been said, as varied as possible within the 
limits of space and time. 

But a much more difficult and more important type of 
application than the formal exercises is the practical type. 
In grammar the best application to make is the application 
to the spoken and written language of the pupils. In arith- 
metic, problems from the pupils' own intimate experience 
should be sought for. Particularly in arithmetic, there is 
a great field for a rural school arithmetic which will carry 
all its principles in problems dressed in the concepts and 
concrete experiences of the farm. In physiology, an appli- 
cation of the principles to practical individual and civic- 
sanitation and hygiene is invaluable. In civics, to make the 
principles and concepts function in the practical political life 
of the pupils is of more value than mere knowledge of the 
text-book civics. 

This is, of course, very difficult and unfortunately no rule 
can be laid down for doing work of that kind except this, 



THE USE OF SUBJECT-MATTER 383 

that the teacher should have an alert eye, open for all 

possible practical, concrete cases. A note should be made 

whenever they occur, to be utilized at the appropriate time. 

Applications Set by the Pupils.— Not less important is 

the practice of having the children find situations to which 

the principle will apply. For in the first place, it gives the 

control of the principle that comes from mastery. To be 

able to take the principle and handle it gives familiarity 

therewith and power to utilize. In the second place, it makes 

the pupil independent of the teacher. He becomes in his 

crude way an original investigator and a disseminator of 

knowledge. It appeals to his puzzle instinct. His powers 

are stimulated to search in wider fields. He does not follow, 

but leads. . . ., 

In school, the teacher of history may ask his pupils to 

find cases in history or modern life where the same principle 

is involved. In arithmetic the pupils may make up problems. 

In grammar they may collect instances. In geography they 

may give problems from the environment of the school. And 

in all such instances a premium should be placed upon 

originality. 

Section 3. Drill 

Definition.— Drill is defined by Rowe as the "persistent 
retraversing in whole or in part of a more or less definite 
habit-path in order to make it automatic." The essence of 
drill is intelligent repetition and the standard is automatism 
such that the item worked upon will carry itself through 
with a minimum of attention. The difference between drill 
and application brings out clearly the nature of drill. 
In the latter the same principle is gone over and over again 
in exactly the same way, while in application the principle 
is worked over in a different form in each case. Drill on 



384 METHODS OF TEACHING 

the table of sixes consists in repeating the table over and 
over ; application problems are of this sort : Find the cost 
of 24 pencils at 6 cents each, or, if milk is 6 cents a quart 
what will 12 quarts cost? etc. 

Drill vs. Application. — Drill differs from application in 
that it goes back over the same principle again and again 
until control is secured in one situation, while application 
seeks to apply the principle to new situations. 

It is claimed by some that drill is not a necessary school 
process. It is asserted that if the pupil utilizes the prin- 
ciple in new situations, sufficient skill will be secured. For 
instance, it is said that writing exercises, as such, are not 
necessary; that if children are taught to form the letters 
they will become sufficiently expert if they merely write 
the papers and exercises which are involved in the study of 
arithmetic, history, or geography. Again, following this 
principle, drill on the multiplication tables is not necessary; 
sufficient control comes from working problems involving 
multiplication. 

However plausible this theory may be, it is not true to 
life. Outside of school, children and adults drill them- 
selves. A boy who has just learned to whistle practices for 
days to the distraction of all within sound of his efforts. 
Youths will spend hours by a barnside drilling on a new 
serve in tennis. Musicians spend years practicing scales. 
Wherever there is a desire for skill in technique there is a 
necessity for drill. And the greater the desire, the more 
strenuous the drill. 

So, in school, there is the most urgent necessity for mem- 
orizing and drill, for review and rereview. And this stands 
in the greatest need of being emphasized, for in recent 
years there is a pernicious tendency afloat in pedagogical 
literature and practice to the effect that what is needed is 



THE USE OF SUBJECT-MATTER 385 

that pupils understand what they study rather than that they 
should memorize it. As if there were any antagonism be- 
tween reason and memory ! Why has nature given us mem- 
ories? And why does the popular mind exalt the man of 
strong powers of memory? Entirely for the reason that 
memory has such a tremendous place in life that the recog- 
nition of its value has become almost an instinct in the race. 
The theory that what is needed is not facts stored in the 
memory, but a knowledge of where to find facts when 
needed, is harmful. In ninety-nine per cent of the cases 
our solutions must be worked out in terms of what we 
know. We have neither time nor opportunity to rush to 
books before we arrive at a solution. If we waited to do 
so, the time for acting might be past. 

What to Drill. — Speaking in its broadest terms only 
those things should be drilled which can with advantage be 
used again and again in an exact form in later life. Notably 
spelling, reading, writing, grammar, and the essentials of 
arithmetic are samples. They will be used again and again 
and they are exact in form: there is one best way to spell, 
to pronounce, to form letters, to speak, and to multiply and 
divide. 

But in many subjects, not so exact in form, there are ele- 
ments that are of such importance as to be learned in exact 
and permanent form. For instance, in literature there are 
many poems, so full of the philosophy of life aptly ex- 
pressed, that they should be memorized verbatim. In his- 
tory, pivotal dates, events which opened an epoch or in which 
it culminated need to be fixed permanently. 

It is the teacher's business, then, to scan every lesson in 
order to see if there are in it facts and methods that need 
to be made automatic. These should be intelligently se- 
lected, neither with a prodigal nor a parsimonious hand. 



386 METHODS OF TEACHING 

This is not an easy thing always to do. "If a lesson is 
given in drawing a vase, the habits involved are not so clear 
at first sight as in a writing lesson. It is evidently a lesson 
in habit-getting. The teacher wishes the children to get the 
ability to reproduce objects of that nature. What are the 
habits? The writer remembers well what an enigma to him 
as a child was the meaning of a noted illustrator who said, 
all that was necessary to draw well was to be able to see. 
The boy knew he could see as well as anybody, but he knew 
equally well that he could not draw. What was meant by 
seeing in this case? He had not yet observed enough to 
learn that often square surfaces are not seen as square and, 
in fact, that forms are seldom seen exactly as they are. 
He had still to learn that colors are not always what one 
would think, and that black surfaces with a little light re- 
flecting from them ordinarily must be drawn or represented 
by white, while white surfaces in the shadow must be pro- 
portionately shaded. If, now, he could use these points to 
just the degree necessary in reproducing objects, he would 
not only have a general habit of observing accurately, but 
also one of executing or representing accurately, the object 
observed. Seeing in the sense used by the illustrator cov- 
ered, then, all these sorts of activity, and more. When the 
teacher wishes the children to draw the vase, it may be 
because that lesson is set by the drawing inspector or super- 
visor. Little will be accomplished if each child merely 
makes a drawing, shows it, and hands it in. He will know 
neither more nor less than he did before and will be only 
the slightest trifle more accurate and easy with his pencil. 
If the teacher has a chance to measure by noting the pro- 
portionate distances on his pencil, and thus shows the child 
how to measure for himself — if from several whites, blacks, 
and grays he matches the light and shadow on the vase. 



THE USE OF SUBJECT-MATTER 387 

then he will be on the way toward establishing a habit 
which will help him to be independent of all guessing and 
to find out for himself whether the vertical lines are really 
the proper length compared with the horizontal, or where 
and how much shading is needed. Consequently this les- 
son, though not contributing much practice, still in getting 
all the proportions and shades needed will contribute its 
mite, if we treat it as a habit lesson. It may be a continua- 
tion of one begun months before.' 1 

Once these candidates for automatic learning have been 
picked out, however, they should not be left till they are 
automatic. The states and capitals, the important rivers 
of continents in order, capes, important commercially or 
topographically, and many other things of a like sort, should 
be memorized thoroughly in geography. In history certain 
dates, lists of the names of administrators of the pupils' 
native land as the presidents of the United States and the 
sovereigns of England (for British boys and girls) should 
be memorized and sung and rhymed if necessary. The 
multiplication tables and important definitions in grammar 
should go with the facility of eenie-meenie-minie-mo. 
Under the old regime everything was memorized ; under the 
new regime we are in danger of memorizing nothing ; under 
the true regime that worth memorizing is selected, but once 
having been selected it is memorized in thorough-going 
fashion. 

Motive for drill. — There are three sorts of motive for 
drill. One motive is interest in drill for the fun one can get 
out of it. This is probably stronger than most writers on 
methods of teaching will admit and not so strong as most 
teachers assume. Children do enjoy retraversing something, 
if it happens to be interesting. They sing ditties over and 

1 Rowe, Habit Formation, pp. 102-3. 



388 METHODS OF TEACHING 

over again, they ask for the same story, and admit no varia- 
tions. A boy will recite his spelling lesson with a good deal 
of interest if he happens to be fairly good in spelling. But 
there is a good deal of uncertainty about the presence and 
absence of this interest and it is likely to wane before the 
process is finally made automatic. 

In that case appeal is made to generic values. Certain 
rewards and punishments of a generic sort are utilized. 
Perhaps the boy is "kept in" if he does not know his spell- 
ing lesson, his tables or his definitions in grammar ; perhaps 
he is graded on his efficiency, or receives a special reward 
for good work. Emulation in the form of matches may be 
resorted to, or pride in speed may be engendered. 

But appeal may, also, be made to specific motives and 
should be wherever possible. The function of drill is to 
give spe ed and accurac y. If a person wants to be neither 
accurate nor rapid, the*J>robability is that he will never drill. 
But if he wants speed or accuracy, particularly speed, and 
does not have it, he will of course feel the need for drill. 
In appealing; then, to the specific motive for drill we make 
the pupil aware of the fact that he is not sufficiently rapid. 

Illustrations of this are numerous. A group of pupils in- 
tent upon playing a game and adding up their scores to see 
who is the winner raise a clamor to the teacher for drill 
in addition to keep the game from standing still. A foot- 
ball team after a stinging defeat "gets down to business," 
as the coach expresses it. A boy who cannot find out how 
much it will cost him to make a hotbed because of lack of 
speed in lumber measures is in a receptive state for drill. 
Students in high school who have trouble in second-year 
German because of weakness with grammatical rules feel 
the need for drill upon the first-year forms. 

Teachers, unfortunately, do not make as frequent use of 



THE USE OF SUBJECT-MATTER 389 

this motive as they should. In Caesar, the teacher is inclined 
to blame the first-year teacher instead of recognizing that 
the tendency of the human mind is to forget, and that an 
excellent opportunity for a good drill is beautifully exem- 
plified in the failure of the pupils to use the grammar as 
skillfully as they should. Wherever the teacher of an ad- 
vanced subject, or of the advanced portion of any subject, 
gets an opportunity to drive home upon the pupils the fact 
that they are not proficient in earlier forms he should do 
so and follow that up with thorough drills and reviews. 

Preparatory Drill. — A query arises: Since pupils un- 
dertake drill with so much greater spirit when they feel the 
need for it, ought any drill be given before situations 
actually arise in which they see the need? It would seem 
at first glance that the answer would be in the negative. 
But since the motive is the thing we are after, it is possible 
to secure it by bringing the students to see that the prin- 
ciple will be used frequently, and that a little drill now will 
save trouble later. This is true to life. We look ahead 
and prepare for the future. 

Instead of waiting for errors to arise in exercises or for 
slowness to become evident to the pupils when they apply 
rules of grammar or tables in arithmetic, the teacher may 
rely upon what they know from past experiences that 
drill had better be given now to save time in the long run. 
But wherever practicable, the pupils should be made aware 
of poor performance whenever it shows itself. 

How to Drill. — Methods of drill are found in psychol- 
ogy under Methods of Memorizing and Methods of Forming 
Habits. Both of these have several factors in common 
which will be mentioned. 

The first thing necessary is to have a strong motive. 
Much is dependent upon the earnestness that is put into the 



390 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



work from the start. In the case of habit, the "initiative" 
must be strong. 

The strength of the motive is determined in large part by 
the affection of pupils for high standards. If the pupil is 
toned up to high speed and to accurate and efficient work, he 
will feel their absence more keenly. The methods of get- 
ting this were stated above. 

The second thing necessary is to have the pupils clearly 
understand what is to be drilled. If neatness is to be drilled 
he should know definitely what he must do to be neat. If 
a poem is to be memorized he should understand the poem 
and much time should be spent in correcting his errors 
before the learning has gone too far. If he has to learn 
to handle a pen he should be shown with the most minute 
pains, concretely, by the teacher, just how it is to be held. 
Often a teacher will say to the class, "Now, let us see if we 
cannot read this better." But they can do nothing intelli- 
gently because they do not know what "better" reading 
means. If they are to cultivate a habit of good reading, they 
must understand what the elements of good reading are. 

The third factor is repetition with attention. Mere repeti- 
tion is not sufficient. Strayer 1 says : "A child learns to 
spell a word not simply because he repeats the letters or 
writes them in the correct order a hundred times. We all 
have knowledge of cases in which this sort of repetition has 
seemingly resulted in no advancement. The most econom- 
ical method of learning to spell requires that the maximum 
of attention be given while the letters are repeated. The 
story of the boy who, after he had written after school the 
phrase 'I have gone' a hundred times, wrote at the bottom 
of his paper for the information of the teacher, who had 
left the room, T have went home/ is a case in point. The 

1 A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, p. 44. 



THE USE OF SUBJECT-MATTER 391 

trouble with this boy was not that he had not repeated the 
correct form often enough, but that he had not attended 
to it. He had failed to realize the significance of what he 
was doing. Doubtless his attention, instead of being fixed 
on the work in hand, was more largely given to the game of 
baseball his companions were playing, or to the prospect of 
the delights of the swimming pool." 

In order to get a maximum of attention the periods of 
study should not be too long. The probabilities are that 
children waste half their time in studying a lesson. For it 
has been demonstrated time and again that where primary 
pupils go to school for half a day classes are as far ad- 
vanced at the end of the year as when they spend the whole 
day in school. And schools in which one-half the day is 
spent in manual training classes even with little correlation 
between that work and the book and recitation work, are 
found to produce as good results in the "regular" school 
work as those which spend the whole day on it. 

Again, if pupils can be taught to give ten minutes for a 
special drill study three times in a day at different periods 
they will produce better work than if they spend thirty min- 
utes at one time. Pupils will practice this if the teacher 
is earnest and patient and takes time to show them that 
what they should strive to do is to do the best work in the 
least time. 

Physical conditions assist in maintaining attention. Pure 
cold air is a great stimulant. Generally speaking, the posi- 
tion of attention, erect body, tense muscles, etc., if not car- 
ried to the point of fatigue, assist in keeping attention. 
On the other hand, some boys study best when sprawled out 
with nine-tenths of the body below the desk top. Those 
positions or conditions which are most conducive to atten- 
tion should be studied intelligently and adopted. 



392 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Working for speed (but not at the expense of accuracy) 
helps to hold the attention and may safely be adopted after 
the thing to be memorized or habituated has been clearly 
understood and made accurate a few times without any 
thought of speed. First be accurate and then as rapid as 
possible is a good motto with which to hold the attention. 

In this repetition there comes a time when the pupils and 
the teacher recognize that certain parts give difficulty. Then 
it pays to spend time on these. A pupil in learning multi- 
plication finds trouble in remembering whether 6 x 9 is 54 
or 56. This should have additional repetition and attention. 
The pupil should work out some trick for remembering this 
before returning to the table as a whole. In memorizing 
a poem some line or lines seem to be particularly difficult 
to master. These again should be drilled upon by them- 
selves, and when mastered the drill upon the whole may be 
resumed. 

The fourth important point is to permit of no exceptions. 
In memorizing absolute accuracy each time must be in- 
sisted upon. In forming a habit it should not be allowed 
to lapse. If a pupil is to make a letter in a certain way 
he should always do it. If he is to be neat, he should 
always be neat. 

In case the pupil forgets something he should try to 
recollect it at first by unaided recall instead of at once con- 
sulting the book or the teacher. In spelling a word with 
which he has temporary difficulty, he should spell it to him- 
self, write it out rapidly, look at it carefully before consult- 
ing the dictionary ; for this practice strengthens the memory. 

If he is forming a habit, and lapses, the original con- 
siderations that made him begin the habit should be re- 
viewed. If he can get back to his first ideas he will be likely 
to have as strong an incentive for continuing as he formerly 



THE USE OF SUBJECT-MATTER 393 

had for starting. For instance, he certainly had certain 
strong reasons for deciding to be punctual. Later if, when 
he lapses, he can be made to think vividly of the original 
reasons he had for making his decision, he will begin to be 
punctual again. 

References for Class Reading 
Bagley, Educative Process, pp. 121-124. 
De Garmo, Principles of Secondary Education, Vol. II, 

PP- I59-I/7- 

Pyle, Outlines of Educational Psychology, pp. 146-158. 

Rowe, Habit Formation, pp. 260-273. 

Strayer, Brief Course in the Teaching Process, pp. 41-50. 

Exercises 

1. Give six cases that have come under your own ob- 
servation where practice improved accuracy or speed. 

2. Does your own experience bear out the statement 
that skill produces a high degree of pleasure? Under what 
conditions might it not ? Why ? 

3. Collect samples of careful writing from the best five 
writers in each grade from the primary grade to the fourth 
year in the high school. What do you observe concerning 
improvement in standards? How do you account for this? 

4. Does it always happen that the student with the high- 
est skill in school who outstrips some other pupil who has 
not so much absolute skill but who tries harder, always 
gives a better account of himself in life after graduation 
than does the less skillful student? Why? 

5. How does a coach raise standards of excellence? 
Work out his methods in detail. What use could be made 
of these in regular school work? 

6. "Honesty is the best policy." Apply this to cases 



394 METHODS OF TEACHING 

found partly in books but chiefly in practical life : cases 
where this principle was shown to be correct. Give two 
cases where it did not seem to be. 

7. "The subject agrees with the verb in number and 
person." Give five of the commonest grammatical errors 
that could be cured by an application of this principle. 

8. Give a half dozen humorous cases in which a person 
who knew a principle was unable to apply it. 

9. Give five cases in which a method of handling his- 
torical situations in the past might be applied to modern 
situations. Wherein might they fail to work? 

10. What geographical facts will assist in understanding 
the plan of campaign in the Civil War? 

11. Give ten cases from your own experience in which 
the necessity felt for applying some principle or fact led to 
a study of that fact. To what extent could such a prin- 
ciple be used in school ? What would be the effect upon the 
course of study if it w r ere used as the only method of intro- 
duction to the study of each unit of subject-matter? 

12. From the point of view of variety of application and 
practical value of the problems, estimate and compare two 
text-books in arithmetic or in any other subject in which 
you are particularly interested. How, also, does the number 
of drill problems compare with the number of application 
problems? Would you change this proportion? Why? 

13. Take such a principle as, The volume of a cylinder 
is the product of the height into the area of the base, and 
make up four problems of a practical sort but of different 
types that would serve as exercises of application. Make a 
good practical problem that would serve as an introduction 
to the principle. 

14. What is wrong in writing out a table of sixes to 
write all the sixes in a column, then the times, then 1, 



THE USE OF SUBJECT-MATTER 395 

2, 3, etc.? Is it better or worse than writing it across? 
Why? 

15. State devices you have used for keeping your atten- 
tion from wandering. From contributions made by the 
class what devices can you add to those mentioned in tins 
text and in the references? 

16. Are there any subjects in which application will give 
enough drill without special drill exercises? Upon what 
data do you base your opinion? 

17. Give six recent cases in which, because of poor 
results, you have felt the necessity for drill and review 
of work covered previously. 

18. Is it better in memorizing to read a selection of say 
twenty lines over and over until it is all memorized, or to 
read it and memorize it line by line? 

19. What are your personal habits for best concentration 
of attention? Note how your habits differ from those of 
other students and in what respect they are similar. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 

Nature of the Assignment. — The essential characteris- 
tics of the assignment can best be demonstrated by a com- 
parison with the recitation. This latter deals with subject- 
matter, motives, problems, solutions, and application. The 
former deals with exactly the same elements as are found in 
the assignment. The pupil has certain problems to solve, 
subject-matter to handle, hypotheses to make, verifications 
to carry on and applications to discover. The difference 
between the two lies entirely in the fact that in the assign- 
ment the teacher gives less directive assistance and the pupil 
relies upon his ability and intelligence to a greater degree 
than in the recitation where the teacher is handily present 
to assist in surmounting obstacles. 

Dangers of different types arise in each. In the recitation 
too much assistance of an unintelligent and thoughtless sort 
is likely to be given, while in the assignment there is likely 
to be too little assistance of an intelligent and thoughtful 
sort given. In the former too much is told and too little 
discovered by the pupil; in the latter too little explanation 
and assistance is given, and, again, too little discovered by 
the pupils. The most usual form of assignment is of this 
type: Take the next selection, or take to page so and so. 
And, of course, in such a case the pupil has to both find the 
problem and master the solution, often an insurmountable 
task because of difficulties of words and facts which have 

396 



THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 397 

not yet been clear to him. An assignment studied without 
necessary assistance is exactly the same as self-education 
without the teacher, since the self-made man stumbles along 
without assistance. And the paramount virtue of the 
teacher is supposed to be that of rendering assistance where 
help will be economical of time and effort. 

Tlie purpose of the assignment is the same as that of all 
school processes — to give such directions as will help the 
pupil to use his time and effort spent in study with as much 
economy as possible. Only, in the assignment all this direc- 
tion has to be given before the study begins, while in the 
recitation the assistance is given point by point while the 
work is being carried on, a much easier thing for the 
teacher. 

The Hardest Assignment for the Pupils. — The most 
difficult assignment for pupils to work out is the one just 
mentioned. Take from page so and so to page so and so. 
It is hard because, as was seen in the chapter on Text-books, 
such a unit has some problem and a solution for it. Conse- 
quently, the pupil has to work it out for himself. It could 
be made much easier for him if the teacher would uncover 
the problems and still easier if a little assistance were given 
to assure effort along right lines. 

This unassisted form of assignment is the ideal form 
toward which the teacher's effort should be directed. It 
can be used occasionally where the pupils have been well 
trained as to methods of study, and where the intrinsic 
difficulties of the form and thought of the subject are easily 
within their powers, but there never has been a class in the 
grades, high schools, colleges and post-graduate schools 
which could not sometimes be wisely assisted by intelligent 
aid when the assignment is made. 

Motive. — The student needs to have a motive for the 



398 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



study of an assignment just as much as he does for a de- 
velopment lesson. As a general thing the motive is a generic 
one or a combination of several. In some cases, curiosity 
leads him to discover the content of the assigned lesson; 
in others, desire for grades, emulation, etc., operate to make 
him study. But, a specific motive, the consciousness of the 
worth of this lesson in helping him to solve vital problems, 
is necessary and should be found before the study occurs. 

The teacher has, of course, a relatively shorter time for 
doing this. However, there is no scientific basis for. the 
amount of work to be covered in a year. By common con- 
sent, but upon empirical observation, school administrators 
have agreed upon a certain amount to be covered. But this 
is based upon the old cut-and-dried method of teaching. 
There is, therefore, no reason in the wide world why a 
teacher who works more intelligently, since this takes time, 
should not cover one-half this amount and no more, if in 
so doing the pupils are working economically and intelli- 
gently. In all probability, within a generation the amount 
of work covered will be cut one-half, so far as topics are 
concerned, and will be doubled in efficiency and in the 
intensity of study put upon what is undertaken. But, even 
as arranged on the present basis, the work will progress as 
rapidly, more rapidly, if time is taken to make the assign- 
ment intelligently, because the pupils will then be able to 
take a longer study lesson. 

If the subject-matter is of immediate interest, the mere 
statement of the problem is sufficient, of course, as has been 
already shown (Chapter II). But if it is not of immediate 
interest, the motive has to be raised by an introductory 
discussion. 

Definite Statement of Problem. — Sometimes, the 
teacher may tell the pupils to read the text and find out 



THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 399 

what are the problems the author is handling. This should, 
of course, be done only when there is no doubt about their 
ability to do so. 

Earhart says -, 1 "Little children will learn how to study 
by being trained into right habits of studying by the teacher. 
In their early oral work in literature, reading, or nature 
study, the process of training may begin, and as the children 
gain in power and maturity, more and more may be expected 
of them. To decide upon the name of a story they have 
heard requires reflection upon the story as a whole, and 
judgment as to the most striking characteristics. To find a 
better title to the reading lesson than the author has given, 
to find a more interesting title, or at least to find a different 
one that is suitable, will require similar effort, and makes a 
good beginning in mastering thought. 

In addition to finding the subject of a lesson and its large 
divisions, young children can be trained to see what ques- 
tion or questions the author has answered in a paragraph 
or section. Teacher and pupils may work together at this 
until the latter get the idea, and then a lesson may be 
assigned to give practice in their new way of working. 
Children naturally ask questions calling for more informa- 
tion, more facts, or more reasons, and need guidance in 
making choice of such questions for class use. Questions 
related to the lesson but not answered in the book, or ques- 
tions growing out of the thought given in the text, should 
be encouraged, and pupils should be trained to discriminate 
between those which are valuable and those which are not. 
They also need to learn how to express the questions well. 
A seventh grade which had less than a month of this work 
grew quite discriminating as to the nature and form of 
questions suggested by the members of the class. These 

1 Teaching Children to Study, pp. 145-147. 



4 oo METHODS OF TEACHING 

pupils objected to questions as being too long, as lacking 
clearness, as telling the answer, as being too simple, as being 
clumsy or poorly worded, and so on. They were giving 
themselves some excellent training in the art of questioning, 
and were mastering their texts, since they had to judge of 
the correctness of the answers given to the questions which 
they asked. Pupils in lower grades can do something in this 
direction." 

But in general it is necessary to state the problems in the 
assignment until they are so trained. This statement should 
be definite. The questions should be as few in number as 
will bring out the gist of the assignment ; because, on the 
one hand, a few comprehensive problems will produce more 
thought, and, on the other, the labor of copying problems 
by the pupils for home study should be minimized. Such 
problems should also be dramatic, interesting, and couched 
in simple language. Seldom should questions be asked that 
can be answered by yes or no. They should be works of 
art in that they require a maximum of effort in answering 
and are couched in the fewest words consonant with clear- 
ness and definiteness. 

Illustrations. — Take, for instance, the following geog- 
raphy lesson on Germany for the fifth grade (eleven-year- 
old children). 

GERMAN EMPIRE 

Form of Government. — Until the year 1871, the country 
marked German Empire on the map was divided among a 
large number of small independent governments. In that 
year they all united to form the German Empire. The 
government is a monarchy, the present ruler, called the 
Kaiser, being Emperor William II. 

Why Agriculture Is Prominent Here. — Germany is a 
better agricultural country than the United Kingdom, for 



THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 401 

two reasons. In the first place, there is a much larger area 
of level land. The northern half of the country is a plain, 
and although the southern half is hilly, and in places moun- 
tainous, there is much good farming land there. 

The second reason is the warmer summer climate in a 
part of Germany, for Germany lies farther from the sea 
than the British Isles, and a large portion of the Empire 
is south of the southern part of England, and no portion 
extends so far north as northern England. 

Farm Products. — Among the chief farm products are 
rye, oats, barley, and wheat. Little corn is raised, but pota- 
toes, which were introduced into Europe from America, 
are a very valuable crop. 

The Germans have so improved the beet as to produce the 
new kind known as the sugar beet, from which sugar is 
made. Hops, used in the manufacture of beer, and grapes 
for use in making wine are grown in great quantities. There 
is also much grazing, especially on the poorer soils and 
uplands, and there are great numbers of cattle, sheep, hogs, 
and goats. 

Lumbering, and Fishing. — There is much more forest 
land in Germany than in Great Britain, about one-fourth 
of the Empire being wooded. The Germans take great care 
of their forests, and even plant trees on land that is not 
especially valuable for farming. When wood is needed, 
certain trees are selected for cutting, while the others are 
left to grow. Such care of the forests is called forestry, 
and the forest lands of Germany are as carefully attended 
to as are many farms. The Germans are the leading 
foresters of the world. 

Along the sea-coast there is much fishing, but this is less 
important than the other industries. 

Mining and Manufacturing.— As in Great Britain, min- 



4 02 METHODS OF TEACHING 

erals are among the leading resources of this country. Coal 
beds exist in several parts, and there are also valuable 
deposits of iron ore, gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, salt, 
and other minerals. 

With abundant coal and iron ore, Germany has become a 
great manufacturing country, making all kinds of iron and 
steel goods, as well as woolen, cotton and linen goods. There 
are many other kinds of manufacturing, such as the making 
of sugar from sugar beets, the brewing of beer, and the 
manufacture of wine from grapes. Germany ranks next 
to Great Britain among the manufacturing countries of 
Europe. 

Commerce. — Germany exports a great amount of sugar, 
wine, beer, textile goods, and iron and steel goods. Like 
Great Britain, however, she must import all of her cotton, 
much of her wool, and much of her food. What countries 
that you have studied might send these products to 
Germany ? 

Like the United Kingdom, Germany has important colo- 
nies, although they are not nearly so extensive as the British 
colonies. Her trade with these colonies, which are mainly 
in Africa, is of considerable value; but commerce with 
other countries is far more important. 

For transportation of goods from one part of the Empire 
to another, Germany is greatly favored by her rivers. From 
the map you will see that the principal ones flow northward. 
What rivers do you find ? Trace their courses. 

Navigation is possible upon all of these, but it is most 
extensive on the Rhine. Boats can ascend this stream all 
the way from the sea to the boundary of Switzerland. How 
far is that? You can see how very important this must be 
in carrying goods across the Empire. 

Great Centers of Population. — The chief seaport of 



THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 403 

Germany is Hamburg, on the Elbe River. Bremen, west of 
Hamburg, is another important port. Why are these cities 
more favorably situated than those farther east on the Baltic 
Sea? There is now a ship canal across the peninsula south 
of Denmark. How is that an advantage to Germany? 

There are many other large cities in Germany. The 
greatest of all is Berlin, the capital and largest city. of the 
Empire. Here are located the palaces of the Emperor and 
many government buildings. Berlin has also many museums, 
noted picture galleries, and a large university. In addition, 
it is a great manufacturing center. 

Leipzig is well known for its trade in books, while Dres- 
den and Munich, like Berlin, have wonderful collections of 
pictures. The schools, universities, and museums of Ger- 
many are among the best in the world, and many Americans 
go each year to study. Cologne has an old cathedral of 
note, and Frankfurt is an important center of commerce. 
Locate each of these cities on the map. 

Summary.— In this lesson, certain world contributions of 
the Germans are stated — the sugar beet, forestry, manufac- 
turing, and river navigation. She is noted for these, and 
these are the important facts to be remembered. An assign- 
ment should, therefore, be made to cover these, and let the 
rest of the facts be picked up incidentally, if at all, by the 
pupils (excepting some of the more important cities). 

Assignment Questions 

1. Which states in the United States have borrowed the 
sugar beet from Germany and raise it profitably? 

2. What should your state do to make its forestry 
methods as wise as those of Germany? 

3. W T hy is Germany a great manufacturing country? 



404 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



4. From what countries which you have studied could 
Germany secure cotton and wool for manufacturing? 

5. What would the United States have to do to use its 
rivers as wisely as Germany uses its for carrying com- 
merce ? Why does it not do so ? 

6. Study the map of Germany carefully and from 
memory draw it — 

a) showing and naming the rivers given in the map. 

b) locating and naming the towns mentioned in this 
lesson. 

The second question makes a practical application, is vital 
and interesting, and at the same time requires a careful 
understanding of what the German forestry methods are. 
Question 5 is of the same sort. Question 6 is of use as 
summarizing the pupils' knowledge of the topographical 
features and requiring a reading of the names and of 
important facts about the cities. 

This sort of assignment raises clearly the question of 
following the text. Is every fact in the foregoing lesson 
of value, each point to be learned by the pupils? Some 
will answer in the affirmative. But the weight of argument 
is against it. Very few books are worthy of such study, 
as any one who has written a book or studied one intelli- 
gently knows. Much material must be used to give a 
context for the rest. Then, again, every text-book writer 
has his limitations. He has a poor perspective of what the 
layman not versed in the subject needs. To him everything 
in the subject has value, while for the outsider, and par- 
ticularly for children, who are not specialists, this is not 
true. So, in the foregoing lesson, in my opinion, the impor- 
tant points about Germany given in this lesson are the ones 
I have picked out. Another teacher may hold a different 
opinion. But, whatever the points picked out, the fact re- 



THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 405 

mains that these and no others should be included in the 
assignment. Another instance of a slightly different sort is 
of interest because it involves a study of several reference 
texts. The same principle is in evidence — only the pupils 
have to select from several sources their material fcr 
answering the questions. 

Illustration. — A Lesson on the Crimean War. This is a 
lesson in English history and is primarily concerned, there- 
fore, with its bearing upon England. A synopsis of the 
various references are given, followed by the questions for 
assignment, with careful designation of short references. 

Main Problem. — Describe England's actions in relation 
to the Crimean war in 1854-6? References: 

Wrong, 2\ pages, p. 531. After Napoleon fell, it was 
Russia and not France that became the chief rival of Eng- 
land. She occupied parts of the Baltic and Black Seas, and 
wished to reach the Mediterranean. She reached across Asia 
to the Pacific and threatened India. In 1853 the Czar made 
a proposition to the English Minister at St. Petersburg to 
divide Turkey and allow England to have Crete and Egypt, 
while she (Russia) was to control Turkey. England re- 
fused this proposal. The trouble started in regard to the 
control of the Latin and Greek churches in Palestine. Eng- 
land had had peace so long that her army was very much 
disorganized. Russia had fortified Sebastopol and had 
spoken in regard to the partition of the Sick Man, Turkey, 
and made an attack on Turkish territory. England joined 
the Turks. The chief battles were Alma, Balaklava, Inker- 
man, and Sebastopol. Russia was forced to withdraw.- 
Terms of the Treaty of Paris: Russia was to place no war- 
ships on the Black Sea and not fortify Sebastopol. This 
treaty was broken in 1870. 

Gardner, p. 943, 4^ pages. The Eastern question had been 



4 o6 METHODS OF TEACHING 

one in which Russia had been interested for a number of 
years. It was concerning the partition or the dividing up 
of the Sick Man, Turkey. A dispute arose as to who 
should control certain holy places in Palestine. No com- 
promise could be effected, so Russia negotiated with Sir 
Hamilton Seymour, England's representative, and presented 
the proposition, offering Crete and Egypt to England, while 
the Czar himself was to take Turkey. Russia sympathized 
with the Turks because they belonged to the orthodox 
church. The Czar also had ambitions to extend his domin- 
ions southward. England objected to this proposition. Then 
Russia demanded the protection of the Christian subjects. 
The four strong powers at that time were Austria, France, 
Great Britain, and Russia. These powers gave, in the 
Vienna Note, a proposal as follows: 

Turkey to allow Russia to extend power to the Turks, 
but Canning, the British Ambassador at Constantinople, 
would not accept this proposition. Hence, war was de- 
clared by Russia. Two courses there were now for the 
allies. First, join and substitute European protection for 
the Christians for merely Russian protection, or, second, 
to destroy the Russian fleet on the Black Sea. England 
respected the Sultan's powers and said she could hold her 
own if existing charges were removed. So she joined 
Turkey and transported her armies to the Crimean terri- 
tory. Then the battles of Alma, Balaklava, Inkerman, and 
Sebastopol took place. In regard to Balaklava, by mis- 
taken order, the Light Brigade, of which the famous poem, 
Charge of the Light Brigade, was written, was annihilated. 
The winter in Crimea was severe. It was here that Florence 
Nightingale with her volunteer nurses did such efficient 
work. The terms of peace were the same as above. 

Oman, p. 682, 7 pages. Russia had had her eye on 



THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 407 

Turkey, the Sick Man, for some time. The Czar knew that 
England, France, and Austria would resent his invasion 
of Turkey, but he thought that he could satisfy them by 
dividing with them the spoils. Yet his proposition, as be- 
fore mentioned, was rejected. The war was brought about 
by a quarrel in regard to the ruling of the Greek and Latin 
churches in Palestine. The key of the Holy Sepulchre, and 
the star that hung over the altar of Jerusalem, were the 
real causes of the trouble. England was not interested in 
the Key and Star, but she was interested in Constantinople. 
Canning, the English Ambassador, was given control of the 
East. He was an enemy of Russia, and he drew England 
into war. England and France joined the Turks. There 
was great lack of military preparation in England. Sebas- 
topol, Alma, Balaklava, and Inkerman were battles that took 
place. The suffering of the English troops was horrible. 
By the treaty of Paris, the Czar was to cede Turkey a small 
strip of territory along the Danube. Sebastopol was not 
to be fortified. The Sultan was to give new rights and 
liberties to his subjects. This was not carried out. England 
and other nations agreed that privateering was to be dis- 
continued. 

Ransomc, p. 440, 1 page. The origin of the war was 
the Czar's demand that the Sultan acknowledge his right to 
protect Christian subjects in Turkey. Lord Aberdeen's 
ministers failed to make Russia understand. England and 
France were for the Turks. Russia began the war by an 
attack on the Danubian provinces. The battles as before 
mentioned followed. The results were that the Russians 
were defeated and no fortifications were to be made by her 
on the Black Sea. 

Terry, p. 1022, 3^ pages. The Czar wished the key to 
the Russian House. Lord Aberdeen was his friend. The 



4 o8 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Czar spoke of the Sick Man, Turkey. Holy places in 
Palestine became the objects of dispute. The Ministry of 
England was divided in regard to what England should do 
concerning the war. Russia took advantage of this divi- 
sion and took possession of the Turkish side on the Danube. 
Russia misunderstood the fear that other nations had of 
her. Aberdeen's Minister was forced to resign and Palmers- 
ton came in. This seemed to give new courage to England. 
The battles above mentioned took place. Sardinia joined 
the allies. The conflict ended in the treaty of Paris. 

ist, Sebastopol was restored, but not to be fortified. 

2nd, The Danube was declared free. 

3rd, The Christian subjects were to enjoy the privileges 
of other Christian subjects. 

4th, Privateering was abandoned. 

Russia broke this treaty in 1870. 

Guiding Questions 

(1) What was the Eastern Question? (See Gardner, 
p. 943; Wrong, p. 531 ; Oman, p. 682; Terry, p. 1022.) 

(2) What did Russia want to do? Why? (Wrong, p. 
531; Gardner, p. 943; Oman, p. 682; Ransome, p. 440; 
Terry, p. 1022.) 

(3) Describe England's attitude and Russia's action in 
regard to Turkey. (See all of the above references.) 

(4) Connect Charge of the Light Brigade, Florence 
Nightingale, suffering of the troops, etc., with this lesson. 
(See Gardner, p. 943; Oman, p. 682; Wrong, p. 531.) 

(5) Give the results of the trouble. (See all of the 
above assignments. Terry and Oman are the best.) 

Assistance in Solutions. — Frequently, it is necessary to 
assist the pupils still further, since there may be difficulties 
in the solution that will give unnecessary trouble. 



THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 409 

In original solutions, such as in writing a theme, it may 
be necessary to help the pupils to collect data or to sug- 
gest sources from which it can be drawn. As an example 
of this, the foregoing lesson on the Crimean War is a case in 
point. In such a lesson as this: Describe the occasion on 
which you were most frightened. No assistance is neces- 
sary. But in a composition on The Trials of Early Settlers 
in Columbia, the teacher may have to designate whom to 
interview, what books and old newspapers to look up, etc. 

Frequently in text-book work help has to be given. Diffi- 
culty may arise because of new words, which may need to 
be explained by the teacher. Some expressions obscure to 
the pupils may need to be elucidated. 

Sometimes, and too frequently for the reputation of text- 
book writers, the subject-matter is poorly organized. This 
is lamentably frequent. It is often impossible for children 
or adults to find any unit in paragraphs, and this is fre- 
quently worse in the fourth grade than in eighth grade or 
high school texts. By a wise selection of the points of diffi- 
culty, and an explanation with the help of the class, much 
time can be saved and more intelligent effort can be put 
into the work by the pupils when they study. This is very 
well brought out by Bagley. 1 "In another fourth grade spell- 
ing lesson the following words were assigned for spelling: 
close, clothes, brought, thought, carpenter, advantage, de- 
vour, pieces, comfortable. The teacher's general method of 
assignment was to have each word carefully focalized, syl- 
labicated, pronounced, and spelled, first silently and then 
aloud. In discriminating between homophones, the pupils 
were required to use the words correctly in sentences. In 
focalizing the word clothes, the teacher pointed to the e 
and said, "I want you always to remember to put this letter 

1 Classroom Management, p. 196. 



4IO METHODS OF TEACHING 

in." When brought and thought were under discussion, the 
teacher asked if the words were alike in any respect. A 
pupil suggested that they ended in the same way. "Yes," 
said the teacher; "if we cover up the first two letters of 
each, they are alike. Then let us remember what these two 
letters are for each word." Mnemonic devices w r ere used 
in focalizing devour and pieces. In the former case, the 
our was arbitrarily associated with devour ; in the latter 
case, pie was associated with pieces. The pupils were 
familiar with the spelling of both our and pic. Just how 
far such mnemonic devices should be employed is an open 
question, but the results in these instances seemed to justify 
the practice. In order to test the efficiency of this assign- 
ment, the same words were given to the class five daws 
afterward. Eighty per cent of the pupils spelled all of the 
words correctly ; twenty per cent failed on one of the nine 
words. The same lesson was given, to another class of the 
same age and grade, without assignment or study. One pupil 
spelled eight words correctly ; another spelled only one cor- 
rectly ; the average standing of the class in the test was 47 
per cent. 

In the following problems in arithmetic for seventh grade 
pupils assistance needs to be given : 

1. In using I oz. of formalin to 3 gals, of water as a 
steep for oat seed to prevent smut, what per cent of for- 
malin is used? (1 gal. of water weighs 8^ lbs.) 

2. Formalin being 40 per cent formaldehyde, what per 
cent of formaldehyde is there in a i-oz.-to-3-gal. mixture? 

Such terms as a steep, formaldehyde and its uses, 
and i-oz.-to-3-gal. need careful explanation even to farmer 
boys. 

In a poem such as the Epilogue to Asolando certain 
explanations are necessary to a high school class. 



THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 411 

At the midnight in the silence of the sleep-time, 

When you set your fancies free, 
Will they pass to where — by death, fools think, imprisoned — 
Low he lies who once so loved you, whom you loved so, 
— Pity me? 

Oh, to love so, be so loved, yet so mistaken ! 

What had I on earth to do 
With the slothful, with the mawkish, the unmanly? 
Like the aimless, helpless, hopeless, did I drivel 

— Being — who ? 

One who never turned his back, but marched breast forward, 
Never doubted clouds would break, 

Never dreamed, though right were worsted, wrong would 
triumph, 

Held we fall to rise, are baffled to fight better, 
Sleep to wake. 

No, at noon-day, in the bustle of man's work-time, 

Greet the unseen with a cheer ! 
Bid him forward, breast and back as either should be, 
"Strive and thrive !" cry, "Speed — fight on, fare ever 

There as here." 

An assignment on this lesson may take the following 
form: First, have a discussion of what life is like after 
death, taking various views, suggesting others. Work up 
by illustration to the fact that one's idea of heaven is doing 
the things one loved best to do on earth. Then set these 
questions on the Epilogue: 

1. What sort of man is described here? 

2. What is his idea of what he will do after death? 



412 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



But the poem needs a good deal of annotation to make it 
intelligible. This may be done by having the pupils make 
the following annotations in the margin of the text : 

At the midnight in the silence of the sleep-time, 

When you set your fancies free, 
Will they pass to where — by death, fools think, imprisoned — 
Low he lies who once so loved you, whom you loved so, 
Ar,JU ^Pityme? 



Oh, to love so, be so loved, yet so mistaken! 
^L- A What had I on earth to do 

With the slothful, with the mawkish, the unmanly? 
Like the aimles s, helple ss, hopeless, did I drivel? 
j3eing- 




'ho? 



One who never turned his back, but marched breast forward, 

Never doubted clouds would break, 
Never dreamed, though right were worsted, wrong would 

triumph, 
Held we fall to rise, are baffled to fight better, 
9^ Sleep to wake. 

f* No A at noon-day, in the bustle of man's work-time, 

with a cheer ! 



mej: 



reet [the unseej 
Bidljnm) forward, breas t and back as either should be, 
"Strive and thrivej^fcr^)" Speed — fight on, fare ever 
■~"~~ ' TTiere as here." 



(MA>W 



With such annotations, which seek to make it readable, 
the pupils can with effort understand it an- et at an answer 
to the questions. 



THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 



413 



Drill Lessons. — In assigning a drill lesson, the most 
important thing to bear in mind is to impress upon the 
pupils the methods of memorizing and drilling that need 
to be kept in mind, for only by constant repetition will pupils 
get the habit of memorizing economically by concentrating 
attention, working for speed with accuracy, breaking the 
periods of drill up into small units, and in general working 
for the highest efficiency. Tabulating the results of time- 
tests will help much in making drill assignments successful. 

Reviews. — In reviewing a large unit covering a week 
or more, the important fact to bear in mind is that the 
questions of review should be such as require a memory 
of only the important points. If certain parts have been 
memorized, they are of sufficient importance to be required. 
If none has been, then only the outstanding facts need to 
be organized. In history, for instance, it is a crime to 
require detailed statements of all events. Sufficient has 
been done if topical questions are set which touch the main 
facts and their significance. 

References for Class Reading 

Bagley, Classroom Management, pp. 192-206. 
Earhart, Teaching Children to Study, pp. 145-157. 

Exercises 

1. Select six units of subject-matter and show what 
assignment you would make for each, stating the previous 
knowledge of the class. Use assignments for lessons of 
varying difficulty. 

2. What qualities should a good assignment have? 

3. At what time in the recitation hour should the assign- 
ment ordinarily be made? Give an example of its being 
justifiably given at the beginning of the period — at the close. 



4 I4 METHODS OF TEACHING 

4. How can assignments as well as recitations be made 
developmental ? 

5. What should be the relation between the interest of 
class work and of preparation work? 

6. What is the value of the study recitation? 



CHAPTER XXV 

THE LESSON PLAN 

Section i. Form of Lesson Plan 

After long experience with lesson plans and the writing 
of plans by students, the writer has come to the conclusion 
that the less formal they can be made, the better for all 
concerned. If there are formal steps in the plan, the student- 
teacher feels that he must make each lesson conform to the 
plan, when as a matter of fact few lessons are true to type. 

The lesson plan is a guess at what the teacher will have 
to do in the recitation. But it is only a guess, for the lesson 
may not work out in the way the teacher planned it, unless 
the teacher holds the class to his plan and does not follow 
the pupils' leads. Hence, I have found the following to be 
a good method of attack in handling lesson plans. 

The first problem in preparing a lesson is to determine 
the function and structure of the subject-matter after the 
manner described in the earlier part of the book, in the 
chapters on function and structure of subject-matter and 
the psychological and logical organization of subject-matter. 

The other big problem is to determine how this will be 
taught. The first is the problem of subject-matter, the 
second of method. 

When method is taken up there are several problems to 
be considered. The order of their consideration is imma- 

415 



4 l6 METHODS OF TEACHING 

terial. But each has to be thought of in connection with 
every lesson. These may be tabulated as follows i 1 

1. Motive. — What form will the motive probably take, 
and how shall I handle it? 

Three cases arise. A problem may arise in lesson of 
preceding days. The problem may need merely to be stated 
in order to prove attractive. Or it may be necessary to 
create a need for the work at the beginning of the lesson. 

In any case, a statement should be made of how the 
problem is expected to arrive in the consciousness of the 
pupils. 

2. Type of Development. — In the solution, should induc- 
tion, deduction, or the general type of problem and solution 
be used? 

3. Psychological Organization. — How is the lesson to be 
developed step by step ? 

4. Past Experience.— -What past experience will prob- 
ably have to be reviewed with the pupils? At what points 
should this be brought in ? 

It is often best not to do all this reviewing at the 
beginning. 

5. Points of Difficulty. — At what points will the pupils 
probably need assistance ? How should these be handled, 
giving specific questions? This is the crucial point in 
teaching. If one can handle expertly the difficulties the 
pupils meet, he has mastered the problems of teaching, for 
expertness involves just enough assistance, and no more 
than is necessary to give the pupils their rights in the matters 
both of effort and assistance. 

6. Summaries. — What summaries should be made? At 

1 The specific questions that will probably be asked should be 
stated so far as is convenient. 



THE LESSON PLAN 



417 



what points should they be made? What should be the 
content of the summaries? 

7. Concreteness. — What materials and devices should be 
used in making this lesson concrete? How in detail should 
these be handled? 

8. Drill. — What drill exercises should be given, if any, 
in class, in assignment? 

9. Application. — What application problems in class, in 
assignment ? 

10. Assignment. — What should be the next lesson's 
assignment ? 

a) Is it an application of today's lesson? 

b) If a new lesson, how may motive be handled? 

c) What explanations should be made? 

I find this scheme for preparing a lesson to be very flex- 
ible. It leaves the teacher free to vary the order of his 
lesson and to introduce his material wherever it seems wisest 
to him. 

Summarized Form. — Summarized the plan will take on 
this form: 

A. Subject-Matter. 

1) Function (specific, intrinsic). 

2) Structure. 

B. Method. 

1 ) Motive. 

(induction 
deduction 
general 
[data 

3) Psychological organization J hypotheses 

[verification 

4) Review of past experience. 

5) Points of difficulty. 



4 i8 METHODS OF TEACHING 

6) Summaries. 

7) Concreteness and realness. 

8) Drill. 

9) Application. 
10) Assignment. 

These are not steps. The steps taken are taken in the 
recitation. They are merely points the teacher has to be 
prepared for beforehand, so that the recitation may proceed 
with ease and satisfaction. 

As a matter of fact, one really needs to know what past 
experience he must review, and what illustrative material 
he will introduce, before he can decide upon his psycho- 
logical organization. The teacher, in preparing the lesson, 
will, before writing it out in final shape, have to first have a 
psychological organization of his own plan. That is, he 
will have to think it over, first one part, then another, in 
whatever order occurs, and then when it is all completed he 
can summarize the plan he expects to use. There is a good 
deal of fun in planning a lesson and watching where the 
plan falls short of what actually occurs. The student- 
teacher will often think he is prepared for every emergency 
and will then find that he has missed the mark. Perhaps in 
the fifth item (Points of Difficulty) he thinks he is prepared 
on every possible difficulty, and finds that points which he 
supposed the pupils would handle present real difficulties, 
while some of those he prepared for caused no trouble. So, 
also, in the case of the fourth point (Review of Past Expe- 
rience) similar conditions may arise. 

It is a good plan for a teacher, after every lesson, to run 
over the work and ask himself, "Where did my plan fail?" 
It is not a crime to vary the actual lesson from the planned 
lesson. What is needed is, by careful thought, to cover all 
possible contingencies, and measure the failure of prepara- 



THE LESSON PLAN 



419 



tion by the number of situations which the teacher could not 
handle expertly. 

Section 2. Examples of Written Form 

Take the lesson on Excelsior as given in The Method of 
the Recitation (pp. 329-332), as follows: 

Plan for Teaching Excelsior 



Age of pupils, 12- 
13 years (6th year of 
school). 



subject-matter 
Simple narrative 
taken literally. Mean- 
ing of difficult words 
and phrases. Leading 
facts in literal story. 



Teacher's Principal Aims — 

a. Enjoyment of a well-known 
poem, hence increased love of 
literature. 

b. Appreciation of a certain moral 
idea, i. e., a lofty aim, with un- 
hesitating pursuit of same. 

method of presentation 
Pupils' Aim — 

To learn what became of a 

young man who attempted to 

climb the Alps. 

Describe a lofty mountain. What 
are some of the dangers one might 
expect to meet in climbing it ? How 
do the monks come to the aid of 
mountain climbers? 

Read the poem, stanza by stanza. 

What is meant by device, fal- 
chion, clarion, spectral glacier, aw- 
ful avalanche, startled air? 

Read the poem through carefully 
a second time. Describe the region. 
Tell the story. 

Was the young man joyous or 
sad? Read answer in words of 



420 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



INTERPRETATION 

Longfellow calls 
the young man beau- 
tiful, and in last two 
lines suggests his as- 
cent to heaven. Story 
figurative. 

The mountain sig- 
nifies a steep road, the 
route necessary for an 
unselfish life. The 
happy homes and the 
three persons signify 
types of temptation, 
or of overcautious ad- 
visers. 

Striking qualities of 
the young man are 
unselfishness, courage, 
determination, energy. 



author, (vv. 2, 3, 5.) Was he at- 
tractive or unattractive in appear- 
ance? (vv. 2, 5, 9.) 

What things tempted him to aban- 
don his journey? (vv. 3, 4, 5, 6.) 

Did he stop? What became of 
him ? 

Do you see any good reason why 
he should not have stopped? Was 
he, then, a foolish fellow, or a rash 
adventurer ? 

What is Longfellow's opinion of 
him in the last verse ? How explain 
such approval? 

Since the story is not to be taken 
literally, let us see how it should be 
interpreted : 

What does the mountain signify? 
The happy homes? The old man? 
The maiden? The peasant? Why 
is the device spoken of as strange? 
The tongue, as unknown ? Meaning 
of excelsior. 



What are the striking qualities of 
the young man ? How shown ? How 
was a motto of value to him ? Rea- 
son for frequent repetition of Ex- 
celsior? 

Describe in full the kind of per- 
son the author seems to admire. 



THE LESSON PLAN 



421 



All efficient persons, 
with high ideals, must 
show these same 
qualities. 



Style. 

Diction — beauty, 
force. 



Good oral reading. 



Have you ever known or heard 
of such persons : Washington, Lin- 
coln ? Other persons in history ? in 
present time ? 

Do you think that it is necessary 
for every good person to exercise 
these same qualities? Proof? 

Does this poem encourage reck- 
lessness? Proof? At what times 
do we most need to recall it ? What 
are the advantages of possessing a 
high ideal? How is it helpful to 
have a motto? 

Find some happily chosen words. 

Which stanzas show the charac- 
ter of the youth most forcibly, in 
your opinion? Which seem to you 
most attractive. 

What precautions, if any, would 
you suggest for the proper reading 
of the poem aloud? Read it aloud. 



Criticism. — I have varied this as follows in actual 
operation in preparation for a class. (As a matter of fact, 
Excelsior should be studied in the high school rather than 
in the sixth grade.) 



A. SUBJECT-MATTER. 

1) Function. To illustrate how a man of genius 
may set aside all temptations in accomplishing his 
purpose. 

2) Structure as stated in Chapter VI, above. 



422 METHODS OF TEACHING 

We find above in McMurry's outline a plan in which 
the subject-matter is placed on one side of the page and 
the method on the other. This plan is faulty because it 
inevitably causes the teacher to follow the logical organiza- 
tion of the subject-matter on the left-hand side, and this, 
as we have seen, again and again, is an organization to be 
followed only in the summary. It is much better to first 
write out the subject-matter and then write out the method 
below. 

B. METHOD. 

i) Motive. — Discuss the question as to whether it 
pays or not to give up all sorts of fun and pleasures 
just for the sake of doing what one wants to do. 
Take cases pro and con from the pupils' own expe- 
rience. Shall have four spectacular cases of my 
own to fall back upon. 

State what the poet Longfellow has written on 
this subject in his poem called Excelsior which 
will give his opinion. Let pupils restate problem 
to be discussed. (This is pupils' aim. The teach- 
er's aim need not be stated in every lesson, because 
it seldom varies in any one subject.) 

2) Type of Development. — So far as the pupils are 
concerned, this is of the inductive type. They are 
in Excelsior gathering another case in addition 
to those already given in 1, above, so as to reach 
a true generalization. 

3) Psychological Organization. 

(1) Read the poem stanza by stanza. 

(2) Ask the pupils if they see what the author 
thinks about the question. 



THE LESSON PLAN 423 

(3) If they do not, proceed possibly in the fol- 
lowing way, taking up the literal story. 

(4) (a) What did the boy look like? Gather 

up the descriptive phrases and get 
meanings wherever difficulties occur. 
(Tabulate on blackboard.) Sum- 
marize. 

(b) In what condition was he found at 
the last? 

(c) What inducements did he have to re- 
main in the valley? (Tabulate and 
get meanings.) Summarize. 

(d) Why did he not accept the invita- 
tions? 

(e) Do you see now which side the author 
favors in our discussion? 

(f) If they do, will let them verify by 
giving detailed interpretation, stanza 
by stanza. 

(5) If they do not, proceed to interpret some- 
what as follows: 

(a) What does this banner mean? 

(b) What name do we give a person with 
all these (tabulated) qualities? (Shall 

develop word "genius.") 

(c) What things in life would the follow- 
ing stand for? 

homes ; answer, domestic happi- 
ness. 

old man; answer, cautiousness of 
age. 

maiden ; answer, love. 

peasant ; answer, actual dangers. 



424 METHODS OF TEACHING 

monks ; answer, religious formal- 
ism (author's statement), 
voice ; answer, reward pronounced 
by angels, 
(d) Summarize inducements and meaning 
of each. 

(6) Do strong people ever make these sacri- 
fices ? Examples. 

(7) Again, does Longfellow think it pays? 

(8) Do you? Why? 

(9) They may or may not agree with Long- 
fellow. That does not matter. What 
they have is Longfellow's view, and I shall 
see that this view is made part of them so 
that it will influence their lives. 

This will be done by reading it over and 
memorizing it. 1 

4) Review of Past Experience. — In addition to that 
already stated, would expect that the meanings of 
many words as they occur could be gained from 
memory. Would have pupils describe other in- 
stances of perils of mountain climbing, and would 
insert them after (4) (c) in the preceding 
Psychological Organization. 

5) Points of Difficulty. — Meanings of the following 

1 Remarks. It will be noted that this development differs from 
McMurry's in the following ways. The preliminary review of past 
experience in his case and in this are different. We use this review 
to raise the problem. He uses it to clarify the development. 

The pupil's aim as stated by McMurry is not the problem as 
stated here. 

McMurry gives the literal story and then adds the interpreta- 
tion. Here we start seeking for his interpreted meaning and take 
up the literal story when the attempt at interpretation fails. I am 
convinced that this will produce a higher grade of thinking and will 
shorten the time necessary to get hold of the poem. 



THE LESSON PLAN 425 

words. (Depending upon class.) Interpretation: 
particularly monks. Would develop religion as 
follows : He was a good boy. Why was the monas- 
tery not the place for him to stop? (Because he 
would not be satisfied there.) Why? (Develop, 
perhaps tell, the idea that he would have to do same 
things day after day, but that he wanted to go on 
and on, so passed formal religion by.) 

6) Summaries. — All I would make are indicated in 3), 
above. 

7) Concreteness. — Making the problem of the poem 
real to the pupils before beginning its study. Pic- 
tures and stories of mountain climbing, dealing 
fortunately with the beauty of the valleys and the 
rigors of the mountain tops. Many illustrations 
from their own experience. Strong discussion all 
the way through. 

8) Drill. — Have poem memorized. 

9) Application. — Have pupils collect stories, poems, 
and events in history in which men either did or 
did not do as this youth did. 

Collect instances from their own lives in which 
they did or did not do as the youth did. 
10) Assignment. — Have poem read aloud by class. 
There will be no home assignments in this lesson 
(which may take two days) until the last day, 
when they will be required to memorize part of 
the poem and write a paper giving a detailed in- 
stance of each of the four following cases : 

(1) An historical character of the type of the 
youth. 

(2) An historical character not of his type. 



426 METHODS OF TEACHING 

(3) A case in which the writer displayed the 
qualities of the youth. 

(4) A case in which he did not. 

These instances to be followed by the 
candid opinion of the pupil upon the 
discussion. 

Following this, the assignment on the 
third day may be to complete the memo- 
rization of the poem. 

This is an assignment of application, 
and no further explanation will be neces- 
sary. 

Remarks. In writing on these points I have tried to be as informal 
as possible and have followed no set plan. 

If this were written by a student-teacher to be read by a critic 
teacher, the critic teacher would get a good idea of the proposed 
lessons by looking at A first and then under B at Motive and 
Psychological organization. These having been read carefully the 
other points would readily yield any supplementary information. 

Arithmetic — Fifth Grade 
Aim. 

To teach division of decimals. 

The following is assumed as class knowledge upon which 
the process should be based : 

1. Ability to read and write, decimals. 

2. Vivid knowledge of the relations of one hundred 
to ten, ten to one unit, one unit to one tenth, one 
tenth to one hundredth, etc. 

3. Knowledge of the process of division of whole 
numbers. 

4. The principle : multiplying or dividing both divi- 
dend and divisor by the same number does not 
change the quotient. 



THE LESSON PLAN 427 



Preparation. 








1. Division by integer. 




a. Find the 


value 


of 1 


b. Find the value of 1 


acre of land if : 


[5 acres 


5 cost 


acre of land if 15 acres cost 


$77,ii5- 






$771.15. 


$ 5Hi 






$ 5141 


i5)$77«S 


I5)$77i-i5 


75 






75 


21 






21 


15 






15 


~6i 






~6.i 


60 






6.0 


15 






•15 


15 






•15 



Compare the steps in (b) with the corresponding steps 
in (a). The pupil will experience no difficulty in telling 
the unit that each quotient figure represents, for he knows 
that dividing any number into parts does not change its unit. 

Presentation. 

a. 12 is contained in 36 how many times? 

12)36 

3 

b. Multiply both dividend and divisor in (a) by 2. 
24 is contained in y2 how many times? 

24)72 



428 METHODS OF TEACHING 

c. Multiply both dividend and divisor in (a) by 10. 
120 is contained in 360 how many times? 

120)360 



3 
Compare the quotients. Recall the principle : Multiplying 
both dividend and divisor by the same number does not 
change the quotient. 

d. .2 is contained in 2.4 how many times. 

Multiplying both numbers by ten, to what is the di- 
visor changed ? To a whole number. 
2 is contained in 24 how many times ? 

2)24 
12 

e. .22 is contained in 2.42 how many times? 

Change .22 to a whole number, by multiplying both 

the numbers by 100. 
22 is contained in 242 how many times ? 
11 



22)242 
22 

22 
22 

.005 is contained in .125 how many times? 

By what shall both numbers be multiplied so that .005 

may become the whole number 5 ? 
5 is contained in 125 how many times? 

5)125 
25 



THE LESSON PLAN 



429 



g. 2.88 is contained in 3.456 how many times? 

By what shall both numbers be multiplied so that 2.88 

may become the whole number 288? 
288 is contained in 345.6 how many times? 

1.2 



288)345-6 
288 

57-6 

57-6 

Many such examples will enable the pupils to formulate 

the generalization : "To divide by a decimal, multiply the 

dividend and divisor by the power of ten that will change 

the divisor to an integer, then divide as in simple division." 

Criticism. — It is better in this lesson after taking up 

preparation ia and b, to give a problem like this: How 

many slices of ham .2 in. thick can be cut off a ham with 

4.2 in. in the clear? and get a problem in this form, .2)4.2. 
If they handle it, give them another, harder problem, If 
they do not, then there is much good in saying, "Let us 
find out how to handle division where there are decimals 
in the divisor." To let them see what they are after is 
better and will produce more thoughtful results than Presen- 
tation a, b, c, above, without such an introduction. 

If they cannot handle .2)4.2, then I would say, I will give 
you two or three problems as hints, and would then follow 
with Presentation a, b, c, above, and, as I give b and c, 
I would ask the children if they yet saw the trick. 
When enough had been taken to recall the principle as 
given below Presentation c, above, I should then ask them 

what to do with .2)4.2 in order to get the answer "multiply 



43Q 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



each by 10," and then would expect Presentations e, f, g 
to follow as application problems. 

Lesson on Lesson Plans 

The following quotation of a lesson and criticism thereof 
sets the point of initial problem out clearly : 

Pupil's Aim: Why do I need to make plans, and what 
are the elements of a good plan ? 



SUBJECT-MATTER 

Necessity for planning. 

A. Lack of interest in 
old work. 

B. Subject-matter 
changes. 

a. Subjects grow. 

b. The experiences 
of different 
groups of chil- 
dren vary. 

C. Not safe to depend 
upon the inspiration 
of the moment for — 

a. Good questions. 

b. Illustrations and 
illustrative mate- 
rial. 

c. References to 
books or maga- 
zines. 

d. Plans for con- 
structive work 
and the like. 



method of procedure 

Do you ever grow tired of 
teaching the same subject over 
and over again? 

Why does a sermon out of 
the ''barrel" lack in interest or 
power to inspire? 

Do you know a subject thor- 
oughly to-day because you once 
studied it? 

Why do different groups of 
children respond differently to 
the same materials? 

Formulate three good ques- 
tions which you might use in 
teaching a lesson on the oak 
trees to second grade children. 

Do you think you might. have 
asked better questions if you 
had had time to think them 
over? 

What picture or other illus- 
trative material would you use 
in teaching this lesson? 



THE LESSON PLAN 43I 

Do you think the children 
would gain by drawing a pic- 
ture of the oak near by ? 

When do you think you will 
have had enough experience in 
teaching to be able to get along 
without making plans? 

Criticism. — In trying this on a class and abandoning 
any attempt to follow the left-hand outline at first, I 
asked my class, Why is lesson-planning necessary? And, 
without suggestive questions of any sort, I received the 
following answers, Without it wandering occurs, cannot 
get in all that one ought, organization poor, cannot arrange 
time for different parts, and cannot get proper questions. 

It will be noticed that several of these replies fit into the 
left-hand scheme, but not in the order given. After this 
preliminary question, which cleared up a good many points 
in the logical arrangement of the subject-matter, questions 
such as those connected with B, and C, b and c, were used. 

The point at issue is whether the students should be 
allowed to go as far as they can without suggestive ques- 
tions, or whether it should be presupposed that every point 
must be suggested and in their logical order. And there 
seems to be every reason for taking the first rather than 
the second position. 

Section 3. The Writing of Lesson Plans 

The most perplexing problem that confronts the inexpe- 
rienced teacher in the preparation of lesson plans is that 
of placing in a written form the things he wants to do in 
teaching a lesson. It is one thing to have a lesson plan; 
it is quite another thing to write one. 



432 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Yet the difficulties are chiefly mechanical, and arise from 
the fact that each thing to be done has to be put somewhere. 
Students worry over whether a particular thing to be done 
should be classed under preparation or development, under 
development or application. For instance, should the re- 
view of past experience be put in the preparation or the 
development? Or should the reading of a literature lesson 
be placed under application or development? 

As a matter of fact, it makes little difference what we call 
anything to be done, provided we do it at the right time. 
Hence, McMurry 1 is wise in presenting a lesson plan which 
does not have the different phases marked off by lines. 
And in the same spirit of not introducing too many techni- 
calities, the critic teacher is wise in laying down few rules 
in regard to the written form. If the practice teacher shows 
that he has obeyed the principles of teaching in his lesson 
plan, he may be excused from slavish adherence to any set 
form. 

Methods of Alleviating Drudgery. — The written lesson 
plan is the heaviest cross of practice teachers. This is due 
to the mechanical difficulties just mentioned, and to the 
drudgery of writing it out in legible form. The critic 
teacher views it with hardly less dread than the practice 
teacher, for it means laborious monotony day and night. 
On the other hand, it protects the pupils from glaring 
errors in subject-matter and method. Writing the plan 
out makes the student think it out more exactly, and, in 
some cases, where the student-teacher is inclined to slight 
his work, the written plan serves as a check against neglect. 

Flow to alleviate this drudgery is an important question. 
The following plan is suggested : For purposes of explana- 
tion, let us group the practice teachers in three divisions, 

1 The Method of the Recitation, pp. 329-332. 



THE LESSON PLAN 



433 



strong, medium, and indifferent. For the indifferent stu- 
dents there is no recourse except the writing of daily lesson 
plans, full and complete, as a check upon their carelessness. 
For the others, let us suppose that they are to teach twelve 
weeks. Require full lesson plans from everybody for a 
week. For two weeks at critic meeting take up the ques- 
tion of subject-matter, and nothing else. Then have the 
student teachers hand in plans in which subject-matter is 
worked out carefully, and do not ask for a statement of 
method. Since we have already eliminated the indifferent, 
the critic teacher knows that even though the student does 
not write his method, he is thinking it out from day to day. 
As the weeks go on, require the students to hand in subject- 
matter plans until there is confidence that they can organize 
it satisfactorily, and then there is no reason why they should 
not be excused from handing this in, though of course they 
will still work it out carefully for themselves. The strong 
students can be excused by this arrangement. 

After spending a couple of weeks on subject-matter in 
critic meetings, motive may be discussed at a meeting or 
two, and during that time the students should hand in plans 
particularly full on this phase. When the teacher is sure 
that they can apply the principles reasonably well, they may 
be excused from handing in the plans. Then proceed to the 
principles of realness, or psychological organization, or what- 
ever else is needed, one at a time, and expect particular 
attention to be paid to each till fairly well mastered. 

This plan lightens the work of the critic teacher in these 
respects. The strong practice teachers can be excused from 
writing full lesson plans, the medium teachers can be ex- 
cused from those parts in which they are strong. And the 
fact that they will be excused from the written work as 
soon as the teacher has confidence in their ability to handle 



434 METHODS OF TEACHING 

it will raise the tone of the preparation of the whole class, 
strong, medium, and negligent. 

In so far as the practice teacher never grows strong 
enough to be trusted in any of the work, there seems to be 
no practical way to get rid of this drudgery. 



LIST OF BOOKS FOR CLASS READING 

Adams, J. — Exposition and Illustration in Teaching. The 

Macmillan Co., 1910. 
Alling-Aber, M. R. — An Experiment in Education. Harper, 

1897. 
Angell, J. R. — Psychology. Holt, 1908. 
Bagley, W. C. — The Educative Process. Macmillan, 1907. 
Bagley, W. C. — Class Room Management. Macmillan, 1910. 
Bagley, W. C— Educational Values. Macmillan, 191 1. 
Baldwin, J. — School Management. W. J. Gage & Co., 1885. 
Betts, G. H. — The Recitation. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 

1911. 
Bolton, F. E.ArPrinciples of Education. Scribner's, 191 1. 
Bourne, H. E. — The Teaching of History. Longmans, 

Green & Co., 1902. 
Chamberlain, A. F. — The Child, a Study in the Evolution 

of Man. Walter Scott, 1900. 
Creighton, J. E. — An Introductory Logic. Macmillan, 1905. 
De Garmo, Charles — Principles of Secondary Education. 

Macmillan, 1907. 
Dewey; John — The Child and the Curriculum. University 

of Chicago Press, 1902. 



THE LESSON PLAN 435 

Dewey, John — Hozv We Think. Heath, 191 1. 

Dewey, John — Interest as Related to Will. Herbart Year 
Book, second Supplement, University of Chicago Press, 
1899. 

Dewey, John — The School and Society. University of Chi- 
cago Press, 1899. 

Dopp, K. E. — The Place of Industries in Elementary Educa- 
tion. University of Chicago Press, 1902. 

Earhart, L. B. — Teaching Children to Study. Houghton, 
Mifflin & Co, 1909. 

Hall, G. Stanley — Adolescence. Appleton, 1907. 

Herbartian Society, Year Book of the. University of 
Chicago. 

Hyde, W. D.— Practical Ethics. Holt, 1892. 

James, W. — Talks to Teachers on Psychology and to Stu- 
dents on Some of Life's Ideals. Holt, 1901. 

Keith, J. A. H. — Elementary Education. Scott, Foresman, 
1905. 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. — The Individual in the Making. Hough- 
ton, Mifflin & Co., 191 1. 

McMurry, C. A. — The Elements of General Method. Alac- 
millan, 1903. 

McMurry, C. A. — Special Method in Geography, Macmil- 
lan, 1904. 

McMurry, C. A. and F. M.— The Method of the Recitation. 
Macmillan, 1903. 

McMurry, F. M.— Hozv to Study and Teaching Hozv to 
Study. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1909. 

Miller, I. E.—The Psychology of Thinking. Macmillan, 
^ 1909. 

O'Shea, M. V. — Education as Adjustment. Longmans, 
Green & Co., 1903. 

Parker, F. W. — Talks on Pedagogics. Kellogg, 1894. 



436 METHODS OF TEACHING 

Pyle, W. H. — The Outlines of Educational Psychology. 

Warwick & York, 1911. 
Raub, A. N. — School Management. Raub & Co., 1882. 
Rowe, S. H. — Habit Formation and the Science of Teach- 
ing. Longmans, Green & Co., 1909. 
Ruediger, W. C. — Principles of Education. Houghton, 

Mifflin & Co., 1910. 
Scott, C. A. — Social Education. Ginn, 1908. 
Scott, H. M. — Organic Education. Heath, 1899. 
Smith, A., and Hall, E. H. — The Teaching of Chemistry. 

Longmans, Green & Co., 1902. 
Spencer, H. — Education. Appleton, 1909. 
Stone, C. W. — Training School Course of Study. State 

Female Normal School, Farmville, Va., 191 1. 
Stevens, R. — The Question as a Measure of Efficiency in 

Instruction. Columbia University, 19 12. 
Strayer, G. D. — A Brief Course in the Teaching Process. 

Macmillan, 191 1. 
Sutherland, W. J. — The Teaching of Geography. Scott, 

Foresman, 1909. 
Thorndike, E. L. — The Principles of Teaching. A. G. 

Seiler, 1906. 



SCHOOL SUBJECT INDEX 

Algebra, application of, 38; function of, 46; method of solving 
problems in, 189. 

Arithmetic, anticipatory type of lessons in, 350 ; function and struc- 
ture in, 95 ; function of, in primary grades, JJ ; incidental to 
American history, 240; induction in, 318; lessorr plans in, 426; 
and mental ability, 32 ; method of securing motive in, 261 ; 
method of solving problems in, 188; the need in, 38, 161; 
origin of, 29; subject-matter with different functions and 
structures, 100; as a way of acting, 36. 

Art in high school course of study, 115. 

Astronomy, origin of, 27. 

Basketry, intrinsic function of, 79. 

Biology in high school course of study, 116. 

Book-keeping, origin of, 27. 

Botany, function of, 81 ; is mental, 31 ; origin of, 26. 

Carpentry, function of, 79. 

Chemistry, function of, 81; in high school course of study, 116; 
primitive origin of, 26. 

Civics, incidental to American history, 241. 

Composition, anticipatory type of lesson in, 350 ; in high school 
course of study, IT5; incidental to American history, 239: 
method of securing motive in, 246 ; psychologized, 225 ; and 
values, 65. 

Cooking, function of, 79. 

Domestic science in the high school course of study, 116. 

Drawing, incidental to American history, 242. 

Economics in the high school course of study, 116. 

Foreign languages, function of, 79. 

Geography, anticipatory type of deductive lesson in, 346; assign- 
ment of study lesson in, 400 ; content of pupils minds in, 33 ; 
explanatory type of deductive lesson in, 345 ; function of, 74 ; 
Herbartian lesson plan in, 323, 327; incidental to American his- 
tory, 241; is mental, 31; origin of, 29; psychological and logical 
organization of, 218; subject-matter with different functions 
and structures, 102. 

Geometry, primitive origin of, 27. 

German, induction in, 318. 

437 



438 SCHOOL SUBJECT INDEX 

Grammar, function of, 69; incidental to American history, 238; 
induction in, 317, 331; origin of grammatical forms, 27. 

History, in high school course of study, 116; anticipatory type of 
lesson in, 349; assignment of study lesson in, 405; as a central 
subject in the seventh grade. 236; English, structure dependent 
on function, 98; function of, 43, 55. 73: a function of English, 
87; group work in, 134; lesson in English, 210; is mental, 31; 
method of securing motive in, 256; stating the relations of 
parts (in English), 87. 

Hygiene, function and structure of a lesson in, 93. 

Language, intrinsic function of, 63 ; function of individual language 
forms, 67.* 

Literature, anticipatory type of lesson in, 348; assignment of study 
lesson in, 410; in the grades, 79; function and structure in, 94; 
Herbartian lesson plans in, 322, 324, 330; incidental to Ameri- 
can history, 237; lesson plans in, 419; is mental, 31; review of 
relevant past experience in, 358; subject-matter with different 
functions and structures, 103. 

Manual training, origin of, 27. 

Millinery, function of, 79. 

Music, function of, 79. 

Nature study, group work in, 133 ; incidental to American history, 
241 ; raising a problem in, 176. 

Painting, function of, 79. 

Physics, function of, 81; in the high school course of study, 116; 
method of securing motive in, 264 ; method of solving prob- 
lems in, 194. 

Physiology, in high school course of study, 116; incidental to 
American history, 241. 

Punctuation, function of, 70. 

Reading, function of, 70; function of primary, 78: incidental to 
American history, 237 ; method of securing motives in, 253 ; 
how to cure mumbling in, 171 ; psychological organization in 
primary, 218. 

Rhetoric, forms of, 68 ; function of, 68 ; structure dependent upon 
function in, 100. 

Science, the function of, 143. 

Sociology, function of, 81; in the high school course of study, 115. 

Spelling, assignment of study lesson in, 409; function of, 55; 
function and structure in, 97; incidental to American history, 
238. 

Writing, function of, 70; incidental to American history, 237; 
method of securing motive in, 255 ; origin of, 27. 

Zoology, function of, 81. 



AUTHOR INDEX 



Adams, J., 176, 183, 194, 318, 

335, 372. 
Alexander, C, 247. 
Alling-Aber, M. R., 230, 244. 
Angell, J. R., 14, 152, 160, 171. 

Bagley, W. C, 21, 24, 36, 47, 
171, 182, 185, 266, 270, 276. 
293, 335, 343, 345, 346, 353, 356, 
364, 393, 409, 413. 

Baldwin, J. M., 144. 

Baldwin, Joseph, 307, 312. 

Betts, G. H., 312. 

Bolton, F. E., 144, 150, 156. 

353, 369. 
Bourne, H. E., 42, 45, 46. 
Buck, G. and Scott, F. N., 70. 
Burk, F., 217. 

Chamberlain, A. R, 36, 137, IJ4. 

Clark, L., 132. 

Cox., J. H., 330. 

Creighton, J. E., 205, 316, 335- 

De Garmo, G, 157, 183, 204, 205, 

348, 353, 393- 
Dewey, J., 23, 144, I47> 151, 1 $6, 

183, 194, 205, 209, 231, 244, 

353- 
Dopp, K. E., 144, 231, 244, 261, 
265, 372. 

Earhart, L. B., 178, 183, 205, 
287, 290, 293, 399, 413. 

Genung, J. F., 280. 

Hall, G. S., 108, 117, 265. 
Hall, E. H., and Smith, A., 43. 
Horn, E., 236. 
Hyde, W. D., 13. 

James, W., 150, 154, 156. 



Keith, J. A. H., 312. 
Kirkham, S., 314. 
Kirkpatrick, E. A., 144. 

McMurry, C. A., 151, 155, 156, 
227, 244, 355, 372. 

McMurry, C. A. and F. M., 9, 
181, 270, 273, 276, 278, 315, 
322, 323, 325, 335, 364, 372. 

McMurry, F. M., 291, 293. 

Meriam, J. L., 235. 

Millar, J., 13. 

Miller, I. E., 160, 184, 205. 

O'Shea, M. V., 21, 24. 

Parker, F. W., 230, 244. 
Pyle, W. H., 126, 393- 

Raub, A. N., 312. 
Rowe, S. H., 9, 387, 393- 
Ruediger, W. G, 21, 24. 

Scott, C. A., 132, 144, 199, 205. 

Scott, F. N. and Buck, G., 70. 

Scott, H. M., 232, 244. 

Smith, A., 43, 44, 46. 

Smith, A. and Hall, E, H., 43. 

Socrates, 308. 

Spencer, H., 16, 184. 

Stevens, R., 312. 

Stone, C. W., 235. 

Strayer, G. D., 133, 144, 255, 

3^2, 335, 390, 393- 
Sutherland, W. J., 288, 293, 327, 

353- 

Titchener, E. B., 148. 
Thorndike, E. L., 121, 144, 156, 
335, 340, 342, 353. 364- 



Van Liew, C. C, 137, 144. 



439 



TOPICAL INDEX 



Acquired controls, 186. 

Active Motives, 173. 

Aim, statement of, vs. raising 
of problem, 183. 

Aims of education and values, 
n. 

Alertness in text-book study, 
292. 

Alling-Aber's plan of central 
subj ects, 230. 

Answers, 310. 

Anticipatory type of deductive 
lesson, 343, 346. 

Apperception, 355. 

Application step in teaching, 
378 ; before and after, 380 ; im- 
portance of, 378 ; made by pu- 
pils, 383 ; versus drill, 384. 

Appreciation of values, 21, 202; 
in language, 64. 

Assignment of lessons, chap. 
XXIV ; motive in, 397 ; prob- 
lems in, 398. 

Author, function of subject- 
matter from the standpoint of 
the, 48. 

Blackboards as an aid in teach- 
ing, 370. 
Books and subject-matter, 30. 

Central subjects. 229. 

Children's meanings, 35. 

Class questions and answers, 

Comparison in inductive method, 

325. 
Complete living and values, 16. 
Concentration and correlation, 

plans of: Alling-Aber's, 230; 

Dewey's, 231 ; Dopp's, 231 ; 

Meriam's, 235; Parker's, 230; 

Scott's, 232; Stone's, 235. 



Concentration of subjects, 228. 

Concrete activities in relation to 
problems, 177. 

Conflict of ideas in relation to 
problems, 176. 

Confrontation as a source of 
problems, 176. 

Constructive instinct, use of, in 
learning, 129. 

Control of values, 22. 

Correlation of subjects, 226. 

Course of study, high school, 
107; factors in the selection 
of, 107 ; details of selection, 
no; tentative lrst' of required 
subjects, 115. 

Culture epoch theory, 136. 

Curiosity as a source of prob- 
lems, 178. 

Data, in deduction, 341 ; in in- 
duction, 320; in text-books, 
282. 

Decorative function of subject- 
matter, 47. 

Deduction, chapter XX, defini- 
tion and analysis, S37 ', rela- 
tion to induction, 351 ; special 
form of problem and solution, 
340; types of deductive les- 
sons, 343. 

Developing method, the, 268 ; 
advantages, 271 ; limitations, 
273; versus "telling" 275. 

Developing questions, 300. 

Dewey's statement of central in- 
terests, 231. 

Disciplinary function of subject- 
matter, 47. 

Docility in text-book study, 292. 

Dopp's statement of central in- 
terests, 231. 



441 



44-' 



TOPICAL INDEX 



Dramatization as an aid in 

teaching, 368. 
Drill, 383 : versus application, 

384; methods of drill, 389; 

motive for, 387 ; preparatory, 

380; selection of material for, 

385. 

Electives and required subjects 
in the high school course of 
study, 114. 

Explanatory type of deductive 
lesson, 343, 345. 

Five Formal Steps, the, 321. 

Function, distinctions in the 
meaning of, chap. Ill ; for the 
author, teacher and pupil, 47 ; 
decorative, 47 ; disciplinary, 47 ; 
indirect, 46; classes of indi- 
rect, 47 ; intrinsic, 43 ; prepara- 
tory, 47. 

Function and structure of sub- 
ject-matter, relation of, 90, il- 
lustrations, chap. VI. 

Function of questioning, 296. 

Generalization in the inductive 
method, 325. 

Generic values, 165. 

Genetic differences in pupils, 125. 

Group work and the social in- 
stinct, 131. 

Growth of subject-matter, 219. 

Habit in relation to problems, 
175; and drill, 389. 

Herbartian Five Formal Steps, 
321. 

High school course of study, 
chap. VII. 

Hypothesis, the, 197: in deduc- 
tion, 342 ; in induction, 320 ; in 
text-books, 288. 

Imagination as an aid in teach- 
ing, 366. 

Immediate interest, 151; what is 
of? 152. 

Incidental subjects, 236. 



Incidental to the study of his- 
tory, subjects: arithmetic, 239; 
civics, 241; composition, 239; 
drawing, 242; geography, 241; 
grammar, 238; literature, 237; 
nature study, science and phys- 
iology, 241; reading, 237; 
spelling, 238; writing, 237. 

Individual differences of pupils 
121. 

Induction, definition of, 316; es- 
sentials of, 317; function of, 
316; special form of problem 
and solution, 320. 

Inductive method, chap. XIX ; 
criticism of, 329; origm n^ 
314; steps in, 321. 

Informational questions, 296. 

Inherited controls, 185. 

Instincts and values, 14; avail- 
able in teaching, 126. 

Instruction, forms of, :hap. 
XVI. 

Interest, characteristics of, 147 ; 
degrees of, 149; kinds of, 150 
(direct and indirect, 151 ; im- 
mediate and mediate, 154; na- 
tive and acquired, 150) ; things 
of immediate interest, 152; 
and values, 16, 146. 

Intrinsic function, 43 : and spe- 
cific, 45; of subject-matter, 
chap. IV. 

Introspection as an aid in teach- 
ing, 139. 

Lecture method, 269. 

Lesson plan, the, chap. XXV ; 
form of written, 415; the 
writing of, 431. 

Logic and structure of subject- 
matter, 84. 

Logical and psychological or- 
ganization of subject-matter, 
chap. XIII; logical organiza- 
tion in the summary, 217. 

Logically organized subject- 
matter, 224. 



TOPICAL INDEX 



443 



Mediate interest, conditions giv- 
ing rise to, 154; need as a 
method of securing, 158. 

Meriam's plan of central activ- 
ities, 235. 

Motive, chaps. IX, X, XI; 
active and potential, 173 ; in 
assigning lessons, 397 ; defi- 
nition of, 146; and interest, 
chap. IX, and need, chap. X ; 
method of securing (illustra- 
tions) XV; review for, 358. 

Natural consequences, discipline 
of, as a source of problems, 

179. 

Need, specific examples, 158, 
160; analysis of, 159; char- 
acteristics of, 161 ; constant 
presence' of, 162 ; and control, 
188 ; how to create a specific, 
170; as a method of securing 
mediate interest, 158; value of 
conception in education, 163. 

Needs and values, 16. 

Parker's plan of concentration, 

2 3°- 

Past experience, the utilization 
of, chap. XXI. 

Potential motives, 173. 

Practical experience as an aid 
in teaching, 142. 

Preparation step in the inductive 
method, 322. 

Preparatory function of subject- 
matter, 47. 

Presentation, 323. 

Problem, in assignment, definite 
statement of, 398; and break 
down of habits, 175 ; and con- 
flict among ideas, 176; and 
concrete activities, 177; and 
control, 188 ; and curiosity, 
178; defining the, 196; and 
discipline of natural conse- 
quences, 179; and induction, 
320; as motive, 174; origin of, 
175; series of problems, 203; 
and solution in deduction, 340; 



and statement of aim in in- 
ductive method, 181 ; in text- 
books, 279. 

Psychological and logical organ- 
ization of subject-matter, chao. 
XIII. 

Psychological processes as ways 
of acting, 37. 

Psychologized subject-matter, 
225. 

Psychology as an aid in teach- 
ing, 140^ 

Pupils, assistance of, 23 ; avail- 
able instincts in, 126 ; charac- 
teristics of, 121 ; genetic dif- 
ferences, 125 ; individual dif- 
ferences, 121 ; function of 
subject-matter from the stand- 
point of, 48. 

Questioning, chap. XVIII ; class 
questions and answers, 311; 
function of, 296; Socratic 
method of, 307; standards in, 
305 ; structure of, 304. 

Realness, methods of securing, 
chap. XXII. 

Required subjects in the high 
school course of study, 114. 

Reviews for motive, 358; as an 
aid in solution, 360; for func- 
tional connection, 361 ; of the 
previous lesson, 362. 

Scott's plan of central interests 
and subjects, 232. 

Skill, method of raising stand- 
ards in, S77 ', standards of, 
376 ; value of, 374. 

Social instinct, the, in learning, 

131. 
Social institutions, as ways of 

acting, 37. 
Socratic method, 307. 
Specific values, 169. 
Standards of questions, 305. 
Statement of the aim versus 

raising the problem, 181. 
Stone's plan of central interests, 

235- 



444 



TOPICAL INDEX 



Structure of questions, 304. 

Structure of subject-matter, 
chap. V, and logic, 84. 

Subject-matter, chap. II; and 
action, 26; correlated and con- 
centrated, 226; dependent on 
function, 98; with different 
functions and structures, 100; 
as end and as means, 54; 
growth of, 219; incidental and 
systematic treatment of, chap. 
XVI ; indirect function of, 
46; as an instrument, 374; 
intrinsic function of, chap. 
IV; logically organized, 224; 
origin of, 26 ; organization of, 
83 ; psychological and logical 
organization of, chap. XIII; 
psychologized, 225 ; in pupils' 
experience, 62 ; structure of, 
chap. V ; systematized, 243 ; 
the use of, chap. XXIII. 

Sympathy in teaching, 138. 

Systematization of subject-mat- 
ter, 243. 

Teacher, function of subject- 
matter from the standpoint of 
the, 48. 

Teaching, function of, 9. 

Teaching, the problem of, 119: 
of subject-matter, chap. VIII. 

"Telling," 266. 

Test questions, 299; standards 
for, 305. 



Text-book method, 268. 

Text-books, chap. XVII ; data 
in, 282; hypothesis in, 288; 
problems in, 279 ; weakness of, 
281 ; verification in, 289. 

Use of subject-matter, chap. 
XXIII. 

Values, control of, chap. XII, 
22; acquired, 186; analysis of 
the process of, 187 ; classes 
of, 185 ; in relation to data, 
202; in relation to hypothesis, 
197 ; and induction, 320 ; in- 
herited controls, 186; methods 
of control, 185 ; in relation to 
problem, 188; in relation to 
verification, 202. 

Values and aims of education, 
11 ; appreciation of, 21 ; classes 
of, 17, 167; complete living 
and, 16; degrees of, 18; gen- 
eric, 165; and instincts, 14; 
and interest, 17, 146; and 
needs, 16; and problems, 16; 
specific, 169; and the virtues, 
13. 

Verification, 199; in deduction, 
343 ; in induction, 321 ; and 
problems, 201 ; in text-books, 
289. 

Virtues and values, 13. 



NOV 4 1912 



